TEE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

PRESENTED  BY 

PROF.  CHARLES  A.  KOFOID  AND 
MRS.  PRUDENCE  W.  KOFOID 


FAMILIAR 

LECTURES  ON  BOTANY, 

INCLUDING 

PRACTICAL  AND  ELEMENTARY  BOTANY, 

WITH 


GENERIC  AND  SPECIFIC  DESCRIPTIONS 


OF  THE 

MOST  COMMON  NATIVE  AND  FOREIGN  PLANTS 

4ND  A 

VOCABULARY  OP  BOTANICAL  TERMS. 

FOR   THE   USE   OP 

HIGHER  SCHOOLS  AND  ACADEMIES. 


BY  MRS.  ALMIRA  H.  LINCOLN, 

VICE-PRINCIPAL   OF  TROY   FEMALE    SEMINARY*."'   "' 


TEURD  EDITION. 


HARTFORD: 
PUBLISHED  BY  F.  J.  HUNTINGTON. 

NEW-YORK,  COLLINS    &   HANNAY,   AND   G.   &   C.  &  H.  CARVILL  J   BOSTON,    RICHARDSON 
LORD   &   HOLBROOK,   CROCKER   &   BREWSTER,   CARTER    &    HENDEB  ;    PHILA- 
DELPHIA,   KEY,    MIELKE    &.   BIDDLE  ;   BALTIMORE,   JOSEPH  JEWETT  ; 
WASHINGTON,   THOMPSON  &  HOMANS  ;  TROY,  W.   S.   PARKER. 

1832. 


Entered  according  to  the  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1831. 
BY  MRS.  ALMIRA  H.  LINCOLN, 

in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  Northern  District  Court  of  New-YoA. 


HARTFORD: 

Printed  at  the  Secretary  Office, 

BT    P.    CANFIKLD. 


IV 


31 


TO 

MY  MOTHER, 
MRS.  LYDIA  HEART. 


THODGH  a  name  conspicuous  in  the  scientific  world  might  add 
popularity  to  this  little  work  now  offered  to  the  public,  affection  for 
my  venerable  parent  induces  me  to  dedicate  to  her,  what  will,  to 
her,  be  interesting,  however  it  may  be  regarded  by  the  severe  eye 
of  criticism.  I  have,  within  the  past  year,  seen  in  my  sister's  dedi- 
cation to  our  aged  Mother,  of  "  The  History  of  the  Republic  of 
America,"  that  these  marks  of  affectionate  respect  from  her  children 
have  the  power  of  awakening  more  vivid  emotions  in  her  breast, 
than  most  events  connected  with  a  world,  which  has  almost  vanish- 
ed from  her  sight,  in  the  brighter  visions  of  eternity  ;  that  ehe  may 
find  the  pious  sentiments  imbibed  from  herself,  in  some  degree  re- 
flected from  the  following  pages,  is  the  wish  of  her 

DAUGHTER, 

ALMIRA  H.  LINCOLN. 

Troy  Female  Seminary,  April  20,  1829. 


PREFACE. 


"  A  PREFACE,"  says  Smellie,  author  of  the  "  Philosophy  of  Natural 
History,"  "should  contain  an  account  of  the  circumstances  and  mo- 
tives which  induced  an  author  to  write  upon  that  particular  subject." 
The  origin  of  the  present  volume,  may  be  briefly  traced.  In  the 
course  of  some  years,  devoted  in  part  to  the  study  of  Botany,  and  with 
the  charge  of  a  large  class,  I  found  the  want  of  a  suitable  book  for 
beginners,  and  prepared  for  the  use  of  my  pupils  a  sketch,  of  which 
the  following  pages  are  but  the  filling  up.  The  pupils  were  in  the 
practice  of  copying  the  manuscript,  but  it  required  much  time,  and 
some  of  them  expressed  a  wish  that  they  might  have  the  same  in  a 
printed  form.  With  respect  to  botanical  facts,  I  have  no  claim  to  any 
discoveries,  neither  have  I  ventured  to  make  any  innovations  upon 
the  science  itself.  The  works  of  Mirbel,  Demerson,  Roeseau,  St.  Pier- 
re, Smith,  Thornton,  Woodville,  Eaton,  Torrey,  Bigelow,  NuttalJ, 
Elliot,  Barton,  Bartram,  Sumner  and  Locke ;  Encyclopedias  and  the 


Journal  of  Science,  have  been  consulted.   For  the  style,  the  arrange 

iplication  of  botanical  facts  to  f 
either  with  a  view  of  strengthening  its  reasoning  Ihcukiep,  or  of  in- 


ment  of  the  work,  and  the  application  of  botanical  facts  to  the  mind, 


spiring  devout  affection,  I  consider  myself  as  responsible.  I  have 
not  intentionally  copied  from  any  work,  without  giving  credit  to  the 
author.  The  History  of  Botany  is,  in  part,  translated  from  Mirbel's 
Siemens  de  Botanique. 

The  description  of  the  genera  and  species  of  plants,  with  the 
Natural  Orders  of  Linnieus  and  Jussieu,  have  been  fiTrnished  me  by 
Professor  Eaton,  to  whom  my  thanks  for  this,  and  other  kind  office?, 
are  justly  due. 

It  has  been  customary  among  botanical  writers,  to  consider  under 
separate  heads,  the  phy&iology,  anatomy,  and  classification  of  plants. 
This  division,  although  proper  in  minute  investigations  unon  physi- 
ology and  anatomy,  seems  not  well  adapted  for  a  school  book.  I 
have  not  therefore  attempted  to  keep  the  departments  separate. 

This  work  has  been  prepared  in  intervals  from  duties  connected 
with  this  institution,  and  while  instructing  in  such  branches  of  edu- 
cation, as  required  the  best  faculties  of  my  mind  ;  it  is  larger  than 
was  at  first  designed ;  it  may  be  urged,  that  remarks  not  strictly 
connected  with  me  subject  are  introduced,  and  that  the  substance  of 
the  book  might  be  much  condensed.  In  answer  to  this  objection,  I 
would  remark,  that  from  experience  in  teaching  others,  and  from 
observation  of  the  operations  of  my  own  mind,  I  am  led  to  believe 
that  books  most  remarkable  for  a  concise  style,  are  not  the  most  fa- 
vourable for  the  developement  of  the  mind.  If  a  book  is  to  be  com- 
mitted to  memory,  every  word,  member  of  a  sentence,  or  idea,  not 
absolutely  essential,  should  be  excluded ;  but  this  fact  with  regard 
to  education  seems  now  to  be  generally  understood,  that  the  memory 


PREFACE,  V 

may  be  burdened  without  improving  the  other  intellectual  faculties, 
and  that  the  best  method  of  teaching,  is  that  which  tends  most  to 
develope,  fertilize,  and  strengthen  the  mind. 

A  small  text  book,  in  a  dry,  concise  style,  may  answer  very  well 
where  a  teacher  has  leisure  and  ability  to  amplify  and  explain ;  thus 
supplying  to  the  pupils  the  want  of  an  interesting  book :  yet  with  all 
this  labour  on  the  part  of  a  teacher,  a  book  containing  interesting 
illustrations,  would  be  desirable.  But  many  teachers  have  neither 
the  time,  nor  the  confidence  in  themselves,  to  attempt  to  enlarge  or 
illustrate :  considering  their  duty  as  terminating  in  a  faithful  expla- 
nation of  the  book  from  which  their  pupils  study. 

It  is  desirable  that  school  books  should  be  easy  to  teach,  and  easy 
to  learn. 

The  essentials  for  these  purposes  are, 

1st.  A  clear  and  methodical  arrangement  of  subjects. 

2d.  Perspicuity  of  language. 

3d.  A  pleasing  style,  and  interesting  illustrations. 

Whether  I  have  attained  to  this  standard,  it  remains  for  experi- 
ence to  determine. 

But  much  as  I  have  desired  to  aid  the  youthful  mind  in  acquiring 
the  elements  of  knowledge,  still  more  have  I  desired  to  lead  that  mind 
to  the  fountain  of  all  knowledge,  to  teach  it  to  behold  the  providence 
of  God  as  ever  active,  and  watchful  over  all,  even  the  least  of  his 
works. 

I  am  greatly  indebted  to  the  kindness  of  Dr.  Robbins,  who  amidst 
the  fatigue  of  professional  duties,  has  performed  a  service,  for  which, 
by  long  and  close  study  of  the  ancient  languages,  he  i&  peculiarly 
well  qualified,  that  of  accenting  the  genera  and  species  of  plants  an- 
nexed to  these*lectures.  This  it  is  believed  will  prove  of  great 
utility  both  to  teachers  and  pupils;  for  without  some  guide,  those 
who  are  unacquainted  with  the  principles  of  accentuation  in  the 
Latin  and  Greek  languages,  are  liable  to  many  mistakes  in  pro- 
nouncing botanical  names. 

1* 


PREFACE 
TO  THE  THIRD  EDITION. 


THE  first  edition  of  this  work  was  presented  to  the  public  with 
many  fears  and  much  hesitation ;  the  favourable  reception  which  it 
received,  was  therefore  gratifying,  in  proportion  as  it  was  unexpect- 
ed. The  encouraging  voice  and  approving  smile  of  our  fellow  tra- 
vellers in  the  journey  of  life,  have  a  powerful  influence  in  exciting 
us  to  greater  efforts ;  and  while  the  virtuous  mind  would  fear  to  in- 
dulge in  an  inordinate  love  of  human  applause,  it  must  feel  that  the 
approbation  of  the  good  on  earth,  is  a  pledge  of  that  higher  reward 
which  awaits  it  hereafter.  These  Lectures,  although  written  \\ith 
a  view  to  teach  science,  have  yet  a  higher  aim,  that  of  leading  the 
youthful  mind  to  view  the  wisdom,  power  and  goodness  of  the  Al- 
mighty, as  manifested  in  his  creation — and  no  commendation  which 
this  work  has  received,  has  been  so  gratifying  to  its  author,  as  that, 
which  has  ascribed  to  it  a  religious  tendency. 

Since  the  publication  of  this  elementary  work,  the  science  of  which 
it  treats  has  been  introduced,  as  a  study,  into  many  of  our  principal 
female  seminaries ;  and  in  the  various  applications  for  teachers, 
which  are  made  to  this  institution  from  different  parts  of  the  country, 
an  acquaintance  with  Botany  is  now  often  made  an  indispensable 
qualification.  It  was  the  difficulty  of  procuring  a 'female  instructor 
in  this  department  which  led  the  author  of  these  lectures  to  apply 
herself  to  the  study  of  a  science,  whose  beauties  until  recently  have 
been  concealed  from  general  observation. 

In  this  edition  care  has  been  taken  to  profit  by  the  remarks  of  teach- 
ers and  others  who  have  used  the  work.  The  Physiological  depart- 
ment is  rendered  more  full,  by  additional  remarks  upon  the  growth 
of  plants,  circulation  of  fluids,  MirbeVs  arrangements  of  fruits, 
*c.  The  wood  cuts  which  are  now  added  will,  it  is  thought,  be 
found  useful  for  purposes  of  illustration.  The  analysis  of  subjects  is 
now  placed  at  the  bottom  of  each  page,  as  being  there  more  con- 
venient for  reference,  than  at  the  end  of  the  book. 

To  some  scientific  gentlemen,  who,  condescending  to  notice  so, 
unpretending  a  volume,  have  suggested  the  propriety  of  rendering 
it  more  strictly  scientific,  the  author  would  reply,  that  from  the  first 
it  was  only  intended  as  a  popular  introduction  to  the  science.  No 
one  department  is  considered  as  complete ;  the  botanical  descriptions 
do  not  include  all  the  plants  of  any  one  section  of  the  country,  but 
aome  of  the  most  common  indigenous  and  exotic  plants  of  the  various 
botanical  districts  of  the  United  States ;  such,  as  it  is  supposed,  teach- 
ers can  easily  procure  for  analysis  in  their  classes.  Pupils  going  into 
the  fields  to  collect  plants  should  be  provided  with  a  Flora  of  the  re- 


PREFACE.  vii 

gion  in  which  they  attempt  to  botanize;*  teachers  for  their  own  pri- 
vate use,  should  be  furnished  with  some  work  containing;  descriptions 
of  all  the  plants  of  the  country,  as  Eaton's  Manual,  Torrey's  Bo- 
tany, &c.  Little  alteration  in  the  arrangement  of  the  work,  has 
been  made  in  this  edition ;  a  few  additions  have  been  made,  from 
suggestions  occasioned  by  the  perusal  of  some  English  and  French 
botanical  works  of  recent  publication  $  bnt  in  none  of  those  works  has 
the  author  yet  met  with  that  simple  and  inductive  method  of  treat- 
ing the  science  for  the  benefit  of  learners,  which  she  believes  to  be 
exhibited  in  this  humble  volume. 

*  Professor  Hitchcock's  "  Catalogue  of  the  Plants  growing  m  the  vtcinitij  of 
Amherst  College"  furnishes  nearly  all  the  indigenous  plants  which  may  be 
found  in  the  Northern  part  of  the  United  States.  This  Catalogue  is  the  fruit 
of  twelve  year's  examination  of  plants,  made  by  the  Professor,  aided  by  several 
eminent  botanists. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTION. 

LECTURE  I.    Page  13. 
Importance  of  System. — Advantages  to  be  derived  from  the  Study 

PARTL 

LECTURE  II.    P.  18. 

General  division  of  the  sciences  which  relate  to  mind  and  matter. — 
DiH'crent  departments  of  Botanical  science. — Parts  of  a  flower. 

LECTURE  III.    P.  21. 

Method  of  analyzing  plants.  Analysis  of  the  Pink.  Lily,  Rose  and 
Poppy. 

LECTURE  IV.    P.  29. 
Latin  and  Greek  numerals. — Artificial  classes  and  orders. 

"  LECTURE  V.    P.  35. 

Condensed  view  of  the  Natural  Orders  of  Lonnams  and  Jueeieu. — 
Directions  for  pronouncing  the  names  of  Plants. 
LECTURE  VI.    P.  42. 

Method  of  analyzing  plants  by  a  series  of  comparisons.— General  re- 
marks  upon  plants. — Method  of  preserving  plants  for  an  Herbarium. — 
Poisonous  plants,  and  those  which  are  not  poisonous. 

PART  II. 
LECTURE  VII.    P.  48. 

Importance  of  observing  external  objects. — Vegetables  consist  of  two 
sets  of  organ&--Of  the  Root. — The  Stem. 

LECTURE  VIII.    P.  64. 
Of  Buds. 

LECTURE  IX,    P.  69. 
Of  Leave*. 

LECTURE  X.    P.  80. 

Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  Leaves. — Their  use  in  the  vegetable  sys- 
tern.— -Appendages  to  plants. 

LECTURE  XI.    P.  88. 

Calyx.  

LECTURE  XII.    P.  93. 
Corcdla.r— Nectary. 

LECTURE  XIII.    P.  101. 
Stamens  and  Pistils. — Pollen. 

LECTURE  XIV.    P.  108. 

Inflorescence. — Receptacle. — Fruit.— Mirbel's  clasefficetion  of  fruits. 
— Linneeas*  classification  of  fruits. 

LECTURE  XV.    P.  126. 
The  Seed. 

LECTURE  XVI.    P.  133. 

Physiological  Views. — Germination  of  the  seed. — Solids  and  Fluids 
of  vegetables. 


CONTENTS.  ix 

LECTURE  XVII.    P.  140. 

Physiological  Views. — Solid  parts  of  vegetables.— -Fluid  parts  of  veg- 
etables. 

LECTURE  XVIII.    P.  147. 

Bark,  Wood  and  Pith.— Growth  of  a  Plant. 

LECTURE  XIX.    P.  156. 
Chemical  Composition  of  Plants. 

PART  III. 

LECTURE  XX.    P.  163. 

Method  of  Tournefort. — System  of  Linnaeus. — Method  of  Jussieu. — 
Natural  Method  of  Linnaeus. 

LECTURE  XXI.    P.  172. 
Characters  used  in  classification. 

LECTURE  XXII.    P.  176. 
Natural  Families. 

LECTURE  XXIII.    P.  194. 

Use  of  Botanical  Names. — Artificial  classes  and  orders  considered  in 
groups. — Classes  i.  and  n. 

LECTURE  XXIV.    P.  200. 
Classes  m.  and  rv. 

LECTURE  XXV.    P.  209. 
Class  v. ;  Pentandria. 

LECTURE  XXVI.    P.  216. 
Class  Pentandria,  continued. 

LECTURE  XXVII.    P.  219. 
Class  vi. ;  Hexandria,  and  Class  vn. ;  Heptandri'a. 

LECTURE  XXVIII.    P.  225. 
Class  vm. ;  Octandria. — Class  ix. ;  Enneandria. 
LECTURE  XXIX.    P.  229. 
Class  x. ;  Decandria. 

LECTURE  XXX.    P.  234. 
Class  xi. ;  Icosandria. 

LECTURE  XXXI.    P.  238. 
Class  xn. ;  Polyandria. 

LECTURE  XXXII.    P.  242. 
Class  xni. ;  Didynamia,  and  Class  xrv.,  Tetradynamia. 

LECTURE  XXXIII.    P.  244. 
Class  xv. ;  Monadelphia. 

LECTURE  XXXIV.    P.  248. 
Class  xvi. ;  Diadelphia. 

LECTURE  XXXV.    P.  252. 

Class  xvn. ;  Syngenesia. 

LECTURE  XXXVI.    P.  257. 

Class  xvin.;  Gynandria. 

LECTURE  XXXVII.    P.  261. 
Class  xix. ;  Monoecia,  and  Class  xx.  Dioacia. 

LECTURE  XXXVIII.    P.  267. 

Class  xxi. ;  Cryptogamia. 


X  CONTENTS. 

PART  IV. 

LECTURE  XXXIX.    P.  278. 
The  Flowering  Season  of  Plants. 

LECTURE  XL.    P.  283. 

Autumnal  Flowers. — Evergreens. — Ancient  superstition  respecting 
plants.— Various  phenomena  of  plants. 

LECTURE  XLI.    P.  289. 

Habits  of  Plants. — Agents  which  affect  their  growth. — Their  habi- 
tations, and  geographical  situations. — Elevation  corresponding  to  lati- 
tude. 

LECTURE  XLII.    P.  296. 
Plants  as  affected  by  Cultivation,  &c. 

LECTURE  XLIII.    P.  302. 

History  of  Botany,  from  the  Creation  of  the  World  to  the  Revival  of 
Letters,  in  the  reign  of  Charlemagne,  A.  D.  770. 
LECTURE  XLIV.    P.  307. 

History  of  Botany,  from  the  eighth  century  to  the  discovery  of 
America. 

LECTURE  XLV.    P.  311. 

History  of  Botany,  from  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  to  the 
time  of  Linnaeus. 

LECTURE  XLVI.    P.  317. 
History  of  Botany,  from  the  time  of  Linnaeus  to  the  present. 

LECTURE  XLVII.    P.  323. 

General  view  of  Nature. — Organized  and  Inorganizod  Bodies. — 
Classification  of  Animals. 

LECTURE  XLVIII.    P.  335. 

Man  at  the  head  of  the  kingdoms  of  Nature.  Comparison  between 
Animals  and  Plants. — Conclusion  of  the  Lectures. 

Botanical  Districts. — Explanation  of  characters,  figures  and  letters. 
P.  340. 

Genera  of  Plants.     P.  343. 
Species  of  Plants.    P.  372. 
Vocabulary.    P.  416. 
Language  of  Flowers.    P.  427. 
Alphabetical  Index.    P.  431. 
Common  names  of  plants,  438. 


TO   TEACHERS. 


IN  offering  this  book  to  the  public,  the  Author  hopes  to  have  renr 
dered  the  first  principles  of  the  Science  of  Botany  of  easy  attainment ; 
arid  that  Instructors,  in  the  developement  of  the  work,  will  find  such 
methodical  arrangements,  and  simple  illustrations,  as  may  render  it 
easy  for  their  pupils,  and  agreeable  to  themselves. 

The  most  proper  time  for  commencing  botanical  studies,  seems  to 
be  that  of  the  opening  of  flowers  in  the  spring ;  though,  should  cir- 
cumstances render  it  desirable  to  commence  in  winter,  every  assist- 
ance thought  necessary,  is  offered  by  engravings,  especially  by  the 
representations  of  dissected  plants.  The  arrangement  of  subjects 
might  be  altered  in  pursuing  the  study,  without  the  aid  of  natural 
flowers.  The  second  part,  which  treats  of  the  various  organs  ol 
plants,  the  formation  of  buds,  and  other  subjects  connected  with  vege- 
table physiology ;  \hefourtfi  part,  which  gives  the  history  of  science, 
with  the  distinctions  in  the  kingdoms  of  nature,  might  be  studied  to 
advantage,  before  attending  much  to  the  principles  of  classification, 
which  are  mostly  illustrated  in  the  first  and  third  parts. 

The  Botanical  Class  in  this  Institution,  has  for  some  years  past 
been  composed  of  about  forty  pupils.*  The  method  pursued  in  teach* 
ing,  has  been  very  laborious,  as  the  want  of  suitable  books  rendered  it 
necessary  for  the  Author  of  these  Lectures,  who  has  had  charge  of 
the  class,  to  devote  much  time  and  attention,  in  gleaning  from  differ- 
ent writers,  such  facts  and  principles  as  would  illustrate  the  science, 
and  make  it  interesting  to  the  pupils.  This  work  contains  the  sub- 
stance of  what  has  been  thus  collected,  and  the  method  in  which 
those  lacts  and  principles  were  illustrated  and  arranged.  A  brief 
view  of  the  manner  in  which  I  have  proceeded  in  teaching,  may  be 
satisfactory  to  those  about  to  commence  the  science. 

On  the  first  meeting  of  the  class,  after  some  explanation  as  to  the 
nature  of  the  study  they  are  about  to  commence,  each  member  is 
presented  with  a  flower  for  analysis.  The  flower  selected  is  always 
a  simple  one,  exhibiting  in  a  conspicuous  manner  the  different  oj?- 
gans  of  fructification  ;  the  lily  and  tulip  are  both  very  proper  for  this 
purpose.  The  names  of  the  different  parts  of  the  flower  are  then 
explained,  each  pupil  being  directed  to  dissect  and  examine  her 
flower  as  we  proceed.  After  noticing  the  parts  of  fructification,  the 
pupils  are  prepared  to  understand  the  principles  on  which  the  artifi- 
cial classes  are  founded,  and  to  tiace  the  plant  to  its  proper  class,  or- 
der, &c.  At  each  step,  they  are  required  to  examine  their  flowers, 
and  to  answer  simultaneously  the  questions  proposed ;  as,  how  many 
stamens  has  your  flower?  Suppose  it  lo  be  a  lily,  they  answer  six. 
They  are  then  told  it  is  of  the  sixth  class.  How  many  pistils  ?  They 

*  The  summer  term  after  the  publication  of  the  first  edition  of  this  work,  the 
number  was  increased  to  70. 


xii  TO  TEACHERS. 

answer  one — they  are  told  it  is  of  the  first  order.  They  are  then 
directed  to  take  their  books  and  turn  to  the  sixth  class,  first  order,  to 
find  the  genus.  In  each  step,  in  the  comparison,  they  are  questioned 
as  above  described,  until,  having  seen  in  what  respects  their  plant 
agrees  with  each  general  division,  and  differs  from  each  genus  under 
the  section  in  which  it  is  found,  they  ascertain  its  generic  name. 
They  are  taught  in  the  same  manner  to  trace  out  its  species :  their 
minds  perceiving  at  each  step,  some  new  circumstances  of  resem- 
blance or  difference,  until  they  come  to  a  species,  the  description  of 
which  answers  to  the  plant  under  consideration. 

Technical  terms  are  explained  as  we  proceed ;  and  the  advantage 
in  this  kind  of  explanation,  over  that  of  any  abstract  idea,  is,  that  it  is 
manifested  to  the  senses  of  the  pupils,  by  the  object  before  them.  If 
a  teacher  attempt  to  define  the  words,  reason,  ioill,  $c.  or  any  other 
abstract  terms,  there  is  danger  that  the  pupil  may,  from  misunder- 
standing the  language  used  in  the  explanation,  obtain  but  a  very 
confused  and  imperfect  idea  of  the  definition ;  and,  indeed,  what  two 
authors  or  philosophers  give  to  abstract  terms  the  same  definition  ? 
Though  mankind  do  not,  in  the  purely  mental  operations,  exhibit  an 
entire  uniformity,  yet,  in  their  external  senses,  they  seldom  disagree, 
A  flower  which  appears  to  one  person  to  be  composed  of  six  petate, 
corolla  bell-form,  and  of  a  yellow  colour,  is  seen  to  be  so  by  another. 
Pupils  who  find  it  difficult  to  understand  their  other  studies,  (which 
in  early  youth  are  often  too  abstract,)  are  usually  delighted  with  this 
method  of  analyzing  plants;  they  feel  that  they  understand  the 
whole  process,  by  which  they  have  brought  out  the  result,  and  IHT- 
haps  for  the  first  time  enjoy  the  pleasure  of  a  clear  idea  upon  a  scien- 
tific subject. 

It  is  necessary,  before  the  meeting  of  the  class,  to  have  a  suitable 
number  of  plants  collected,  so  that  all  may  have  specimens.  In  ex- 
amining the  pupils  as  they  proceed  in  their  study,  each  one,  boi.U-s 
reciting  a  lesson,  should  be  required  to  give  an  analysis  of  a  plant ; 
aometimes  the  whole  class  having  but  one  species ;  sometimes  giv- 
ing to  each  pupil  permission  to  bring  any  flower  she  chooses.  This, 
also,  at  public  examinations,  is  a  satisfactory  method  of  testing  their 
knowledge  of  the  subject.  With  respect  to  those  portions  of  the  work 
to  which  their  attention  should  most  particularly  oe  paid,  it  must  be 
left  to  the  judgment  of  the  teacher.  Whatever  relates  to  modes  of 
classification,  and  makes  part  of  a  system,  should  be  noted ;  many  re- 
marks, illustrations,  and  quotations,  are  designed  merely  for  reading, 
without  being  considered  as  important  matter  for  recitations. 

An  analysis  of  the  subjects  of  each  Lecture  is  given,  as  a  substi- 
tute for  questions ;  the  practice  of  having  set  questions,  appearing  too 
mechanical  for  teachers,  who  feel  an  interest  in  the  sciences  they 
teach.  This  analysis,  it  is  thought,  will  answer  all  the  purposes  of 
questions,  without  being  attended  with  their  disadvantages. 


INTRODUCTION. 


LECTURE  I. 

Importance  of  System. — Advantages  to  lie  derived  from  the  Study 
of  Botany. 

x 

THE  universe  consists  of  matter  and  mind.  By  the  faculties  of 
mind  with  which  God  has  endowed  us,  we  are  able  to  examine 
into  the  properties  of  the  material  obje'cts  by  which  we  are 
surrounded. 

If  we  had  no  sciences,  nature  would  present  exactly  the  same 
phenomena  as  at  present.  The  heavenly  bodies  would  move 
with  equal  regularity,  and  preserve  the  same  relative  situa- 
tions, although  no  system  of  Astronomy  had  been  formed.  The 
laws  of  gravity  and  of  motion,  would  operate  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  at  present,  if  we  had  no  such  science  as  Natural  Phi- 
losophy. The  affinities  of  substances  for  each  other  were  the 
same,  before  the  science  of  Chemistry  existed,  as  they  are  now. 
It  is  an  important  truth,  and  one  which  cannot  be  too  much  im- 
pressed upon  the  mind  in  all  scientific  investigations,  that  no 
systems  of  man  can  change  the  laws  and  operations  of  Nature ; 
though  by  systems,  we  are  enabled  to  gain  a  knowledge  of 
these  laws  and  relations. 

The  Deity  has  not  only  placed  before  us  an  almost  infinite 
variety  of  objects,  but  has  given  to  our  minds  the  power  of 
reducing  them  into  classes,  so  as  to  form  beautiful  and  regular 
systems,  by  which  we  can  comprehend,  under  a  few  terms,  the 
vast  number  of  individual  things,  which  would,  otherwise,  pre- 
sent to  our  bewildered  minds  a  confused  and  indiscriminate 
mass.  This  power  of  the  mind,  so  important  in  classification, 
is  that  of  discovering  resemblances.  We  perceive  two  objects, 
we  have  an  idea  of  their  resemblance,  and  we  give  a  common 
name  to  both ;  other  similar  objects  are  then  referred  to  the 
same  class  or  receive  the  same  name.  A  child  sees  a  flower 
which  he  is  told  is  a  rose ;  he  sees  another  resembling  it,  and 
nature  teaches  him  to  call  that  also  a  rose.  On  this  operation 
of  the  mind  depends  the  power  of  forming  classes  or  of  general- 
izing. 

By  the  faculties  of  mind  we  examine  the  properties  of  matter — Human 
science  cannot  alter  the  laws  of  nature — Power  of  the  mind  to  form  classes, 

2 


14  INTRODUCTION. 

Some  relations  or  resemblances  are  seen  at  the  first  glance ; 
others  are  not  discovered  until  after  close  examination  and  re- 
flection ;  but  the  most  perfect  classification  is  not  always 
founded  upon  the  most  obvious  resemblances.  A  person 
ignorant  of  Botany,  on  beholding  the  profusion  of  flowers 
which  adorn  the  face  of  nature,  would  discover  general  resem- 
blances, and  perhaps  form  in  his  mind,  some  order  of  arrange, 
ment ;  but  the  system  of  Botany  now  in  use,  neglecting  the 
most  conspicuous  parts  of  the  flower,  is  founded  upon  the  obser- 
vation of  small  parts  of  it,  which  a  common  observer  might  not 
notice. 

System  is  necessary  in  every  science.  It  not  only  assists  in 
the  acquisition  of  knowledge,  but  enables  us  to  retain  what  is 
thus  acquired ;  and,  by  the  laws  of  association,  to  call  forth 
what  is  treasured  up  in  the  storehouse  of  the  mind.  System  is 
important  not  only  in  the  grave  and  elevated  departments  of 
science,  but  is  essential  in  the  most  common  concerns  and  ope- 
rations of  ordinary  life.  In  conducting  any  kind  of  business, 
and  in  the  arrangement  of  household  concerns,  it  is  indispensa- 
ble to  the  success  of  the  one,  and  to  the  comfort  of  those  inter- 
ested in  the  other.  The  very  logical  and  systematic  arrange- 
ment which  prevails  in  Botanical  science,  has,  without  doubt,  a 
tendency  to'  induce  in  the  mind  the  habit  and  love  of  order; 
which,  when  once  established,  will  operate,  even  in  the  minu- 
test concerns.  Whoever  traces  this  system,  through  its  various 
connexions, -by  a  gradual  progress  from  individual  plants  to 
general  classes,  until  the  whole  vegetable  world  seems  brought 
into  one  point  of  view ;  and  then  descends  in  the  same  methodi- 
cal manner,  from  generals  to  particulars,  must  acquire  a  habit 
of  arrangement,  and  a  perception  of  order,  which  is  the  true 
practical  logic. 

The  study  of  Botany  seems  peculiarly  adapted  to  females ; 
the  objects  of  its  investigation  are  beautiful  and  delicate ;  its 
pursuits,  leading  to  exercise  in  the  open  air,  are  conducive  to 
health  and  cheerfulness.  It  is  not  a  sedentary  study  which  can 
be  acquired  in  the  library,  but  the  objects  of  the  science  are 
scattered  over  the  surface  of  the  earth,  along  the  banks  of  the 
winding  brooks,  on  the  borders  of  precipices,  the  sides  of  moun- 
tains, and  the  depths  of  the  forest. 

A  knowledge  of  Botany  is  necessary  to  the  medical  profes- 
sion. Our  Almighty  Benefactor,  in  bestowing  upon  us  the 
vegetable  tribes,  has  not  only  provided  a  source  of  refined  en- 
Classification  not  always  founded  upon  the  most  striking  resemblances,  as  in 
Botany — Importance  of  system— The  study  of  Botany  is  practical  logic— 
Proper  for  females — Necessary  to  the  medical  profession. 


INTRODUCTION.  15 

joyment  in  the  contemplation  of  their  beautiful  forms  and  co- 
lours ;  in  their  fragrance,  by  which,  in  their  peculiar  language, 
they  seem  to  hold  secret  communion  with  our  minds ;  He  has 
not  only  given  them  for  our  food  and  clothing,  but  with  kind, 
parental  care,  has,  in  them,  provided  powers  to  counteract 
and  remove  the  diseases  to  which  mankind  are  subject. 
For  many  ages  plants  were  the  only  medicines  known,  or 
used  ;  but  modern  discoveries  in  Chemistry,  by  forming  com- 
pounds of  previously  existing  elements,  have,  in  some  degree, 
superseded  their  use.  Although  the  science  of  medicine  has 
received  much  additional, light  from  Chemistry,  it  may  perhaps 
in  modern  days  have  occupied  the  attention  of  medical  men  too 
exclusively ;  inducing  them  to  toil  in  their  laboratories  to  form 
those  combinations  which  nature  had  done,  much  more  per- 
fectly, in  the  plants  which  they  pass  unheeded.  It  is  probable 
that  the  medicinal  productions  of  the  animal  and  mineral  king- 
doms, bear  but  a  small  proportion  to  those  of  the  vegetable. 

When  our  forefathers  came  to  this  country,  they  found  the 
natives  in  possession  of  much  medical  knowledge  of  plants. 
Having  no  remedies  prepared  by  scientific  skill,  the  Indians 
were  led,  by  necessity,  to  the  use  of  those  which  nature  offered 
them  ;  and,  by  experience  and  observation,  they  had  arrived  at 
many  valuable  conclusions  as  to  the  qualities  of  plants.  Their 
mode  of  life,  leading  them  to  penetrate  the  shades  of  the  forest, 
and  to  climb  the  mountain  precipices,  naturally  associated  them 
much  with  the  vegetable  world.  The  Indian  woman,  the  pa- 
tient sharer  in  these  excursions,  was  led  to  look  for  such  plants 
as  she  might  use  for  the  diseases  of  her  family.  Each  new 
and  curious  plant,  though  not  viewed  by  her  as  a  botanist 
would  now  behold  it,  doubJess  was  regarded  with  scrutinizing 
attention;  the  colour,  taste,  and  smell,  were  carefully  re- 
marked as  indications  of  its  properties.  But  the  discoveries 
and  obsorvations  of  the  Indians  have  perished  with  themselves; 
having  no  system  for  the  classification  or  description  of  plants, 
nor  any  written  language  by  which  such  a  system  might  have 
bean  conveyed  to  others,  no  vestige,  but  uncertain  tradition,  re- 
mains of  their  knowledge  of  the  medicinal  qualities  of  plants. 

The  study  of  nature  in  any  of  her  varieties  is  highly  interest- 
ing and  usjful.  But  the  heavenly  bodies  are  far  distant  from 
us,  and  were  they  within  our  reach,,  are  too  mighty  for  us  to 
grasp  ;  our  feeble  minds  seem  overwhelmed  in  the  contempla- 
tion of  their  immensity. 

Animals,  though  affording  the  most  striking  marks  of  design- 

Experienes  of  the  Indians  with  respect  to  plants — Medicinal  virtues  of 
plants — Heavenly  bodies — Animals. 


16  INTRODUCTION. 

ing  wisdom,  cannot  be  dissected  and  examined  without  painful 
emotions. 

The  vegetable  world  offers  a  boundless  field  of  inquiry, 
which  may  be  explored  with  the  most  pure  and  delightful  emo- 
tions. Here  the  Almighty  seems  to  manifest  himself  to  us  with 
less  of  that  dazzling  sublimity  which  it  is  almost  painful  to  be- 
hold  in  His  more  magnificent  creations ;  and  it  might  almost 
appear,  that  accommodating  the  vegetable  world  to  our  capa- 
cities, He  had  especially  designed  it  for  our  investigation  and 
amusement. 

The  study  of  Botany  naturally  leads  to  greater  love  and 
reverence  for  the  Deity.  We  would  not  affirm  that  it  does  in 
reality  always  produce  this  effect ;  for,  unhappily,  there  are 
some  minds  which,  though  quick  to  perceive  the  beauties  of  na- 
ture, seem,  blindly,  to  overlook  Him  who  spread  them  forth. 
They  can  admire  the  gifts,  while  they  forget  the  Giver.  But 
those  who  feel  in  their  hearts  a  love  to  God,  and  who  see  in  the 
natural  world  the  workings  of  His  power,  can  look  abroad,  and 
adopting  the  language  of  a  Christian  poet,  exclaim, 
"My  Father  made  them  all." 


/  DIVISION    OF    THE    SUBJECT. 

Having  endeavoured  to  convince  you  that  the  study  you  are 
about  to  commence,  is  recommended  by  its  own  intrinsic  utility, 
and  especially  by  its  tendency  to  strengthen  the  understanding 
and  improve  the  heart,  we  will  now  proceed  to  lay  before  you 
the  arrangement  which  we  propose  to  follow  in  our  course  of 
instruction. 

We  will  divide  our  course  of  study  into  Four  Parts,  viz. : 
PART  I.     Will  be  chiefly  devoted  to  the  Analysis  of  Plants,  or 

lessons  in  Practical  Botany. 

PART  II.  We  shall  here  consider  the  various  organs  of  the 
plant,  beginning  with  the  root  and  ascending  to  the  flower ; 
this  part  will  include  what  is  usually  termed  Elementary 
Botany ;  it  will  also  contain  remarks  upon  the  uses  of  the 
various  organs  of  plants,  the  nature  of  vegetable  substan- 
ces, and  other  circumstances  connected  with  Vegetable 
Physiology. 

PART  III.  In  this  part  we  shall  consider  the  different  systems 
of  Botany.  We  shall  examine  some  of  the  most  impor- 

Study  of  the  vegetable  world — The  study  of  Botany  tends  to  piety — Divi- 
sion of  the  subject  into  four  parts — I.  Practical  Botany — II.  Vegetable  Physi- 
ology—Ill. Systematic  Botany. 


INTRODUCTION.         ,  17 

tant  Natural  Families ;  and  then  proceed  to  give  a  detail- 
ed view  of  the  Linncaan  System ;  remarking  some  of  the 
most  interesting  genera,  and  natural  families  found  under 
each  class,  and  order. 

PART  IV.  In  this  part  we  shall  consider  the  Progressive  ap- 
pearance of  Flowers  during  the  season  of  blossoming ; 
their  various  phenomena  produced  -by  the  different  states 
of  the  atmosphere,  light,  &c.  ;  their  distribution  over  the 
face  of  the  earth,  and  the  effect  of  elevation  as  similar  to 
that  of  distance  from  the  equator.  After  giving  a  History 
of  Botany,  we  shall  take  a  general  view  of  Nature  ;  the 
distinction  between  organized  and  inorganized  matter ;  the 
classification  of  Animals,  with  the  analogies,  and  differ- 
ences presented  by  a  view  of  the  animal  and  vegetable 
kingdoms. 

IV.  Various  phenomena  of  Plants,  History  of  Botany,  and  General  Views  of 
Nature. 


2* 


PART  I. 


LECTURE  II. 

General  division  of  the  sciences  -which  relate  to  mind  and  matter — 
Different  departments  of  Botanical  Science — Partsofajlower. 

THE  Universe,  as  composed  of  mind  and  matter -,  gives  rise 
to  various  sciences.  The  SUPREME  BEING  we  believe  to  be 
immaterial,  or  pure  mind. 

The  knowledge  of  mind  may  be  considered  under  two  gene- 
ral heads. 

1.  THEOLOGY,*  or  that  science  which  comprehends  our  views 
of  the  Deity,  and  our  duties  to  Him. 

2,  PHILOSOPHY  OF   THE    HUMAN   MIND,   or,   metaphysics, -\ 
which  is  the  science  that  investigates  the  mind  of  man,  and  ana- 
lyzcs  and  arranges  its  faculties. 

The  knowledge  of  matter,  which  is  included  under  the  gene- 
ral  term,  Physics,  may  be  considered  under  three  general  heads. 

1.  NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY,  which  considers  the  effects  of  bo- 
dies acting  upon  each  other  by  their  mechanical  powers  ;   as 
their  weight  and  motion. 

2.  CHEMISTRY,  in  which  the  properties,  and  mutual  action 
of  the  elementary  atoms  of  bodies  are  investigated.' 

3.  NATURAL  HISTORY,  which  considers  the  external  forms 
and  characters  of  objects,  and  arranges  them  in  classes. 

NATURAL  HISTORY  is  divided  into  three  branches. 

1.  ZOOLOGY, J  which  treats  of  animals. 

2.  BOTANY,  which  treats  of  plants. 

3.  MINERALOGY,  which  treats  of  the  inorganized  masses  of 
the  globe  ;  as  stones,  earths,  &c.     GEOLOGY,  which  treats  of 
minerals  as  they  exist  in  masses,  forming  rocks,  is  a  branch  of 
mineralogy. 

Having  thus  presented  you  with  this  general  view  of  the 
natural  sciences,  we  will  now  proceed  to  that  department  which 
is  to  be  the  object  of  your  present  study. 

Departments  in  Botany. 

BOTANY§  treats  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  including  every 

*  From  the  Greek  Theos,  God,  and  logos,  a  discourse. 

t  From  meta,  beyond,  and  phusis,  nature.  This  term  originated  with  Aris- 
totle, who,  considering  the  study  of  the  intellectual  world  as  beyond  that  of  the 
material  world,  or  physics,  called  it  meta  taphusis. 

\  From  zoe,  life,  and  logos,  a  discourse. 

§  From  the  Greek,  botane,  an  herb. 

Divisions  of  the  sciences  which  relate  to  mind— Those  which  relate  to  mat- 
ter— Branches  of  Natural  history. 


DEPARTMENTS  IN  BOTANY. 


19 


thing  which  grows,  having  root,  stem,  leaf,  or  flower.  This  sci- 
ence comprehends  the  knowledge  of  the  methodical  arrange- 
ment of  plants,  of  their  structure,  and  whatever  has  relation  to 
the  vegetable  kingdom.  The  study  of  plants  may  be  consi- 
dered under  two  general  heads. 

1st.  The  classification  of  plants  by  means  of  comparing  their 
different  organs,  is  termed  Systematic  Botany. 

2d.  The  knowledge  of  the  relations  and  uses  of  the  various 
parts  of  plants  with  respect  to  each  other,  is  termed  Physiologi- 
cal Botany.  This  department  includes  Vegetable  Anatomy. 

Systematic  Botany  is  divided  into  the  artificial  and  natural 
methods.  The  artificial  method-  is  founded  upon  different  cir- 
cumstances of  two  organs  of  the  plant,  called  the  pistils  and 
stamens.  Linnaeus  of  Sweden  was  the  first  who  discovered 
that  these  organs  are  common  to  all  plants,  and  essential  to 
their  existence.  Taking  advantage  of  this  fact,  hefounded  his 
classes  and  orders  upon  their  number,  situation,  and  proportion. 
By  this  artificial  system,  plants  which  are  unlike  in  their  gene- 
ral appearance,  are  brought  together,  as  in  a  dictionary,  words 
of  different  signification  are  placed  together  from  the  mere 
circumstance  of  agreement  in  their  initial  letters. 

Fig.  i.  Parts  of  the  flower. 

Before  you  can  learn 
the  principles  on 
which  the  classifica- 
tion of  plants  depends, 
it  is  necessary  that 
you  should  become 
acquainted  with  the 
parts  of  a  flower ;  for 
this  purpose,  you 
have  here  the  repre- 
sentation of  a  Lily. 
(See  Jig.  I.)  You 
know  that  at  nrst  this 
flower  is  folded  up  in 
a  little  green  bud, 
and  that  by  degrees, 
it  expands  and  chan- 
ges its  colour ;  being 
in  some  kinds  of  lilies, 
white,  in  others,  yel- 
This  is  the  picture  of  a  white  lily. 


low,  orange,  &c. 


Definition  of  Botany— Systematic  Botany— Physiological  Botany— Artificial 
Method— Names  of  the  different  parts  of  a  dower. 


20 


PARTS  OF  THE  FLOWER. 


The  part  which  you  would  call  the  blossom,  is  the  corolla ; 
this  is  composed  of  six  pieces,  each  of  which  is  a  petal,  as  seen 
at  a.  Fig.  2. 

By  examining  the  lily  you 
will  observe  within  the  corolla 
six  thread-like  organs  ;  these 
are  called  Stamens.  Each 
stamen  is  composed  of  two 
parts,  one  long  and  slender, 
called  the  Filament  (Fig.  '2,  a), 
the  other  part  called  the  An- 
ther (/;),  is  a  kind  of  knob,  like 
a  little  box,  which,  when  the 
flower  comes  to  maturity, 
opens,  and  throws  out  a  colour- 
ed dust,  called  the  Pollen. 

The  central  organ  is  called 
the  Pistil  (c) ;  this  consists  of 
three  parts,  the  top,  which  is 
called  the  Stigma  (rf),  the  slen- 
der filament  which  bears  the 
stigma  is  called  the  Style  (e), 
and  the  base  is  called  the 
Germ  (/). 

In  many  flowers  the  corolla  is  surrounded  by  a  kind  of  cup  call- 
ed the  Calyx,  this  is  wanting  in  the  Lily,  but  exists  in  the  Pink. 
The  Receptacle  (g),  is  the  end  of  the  stem,  where  all  the 
other  parts  of  the  flower  are  inserted. 
Fig.  3. 


The  Peri, 
carp  (Figure 
3),  is  the 
germ  in  a  ma- 
ture state ;  the 
name  is  deri- 
ved from  the 
Greek,  perir 
around,  and 
karpos,  fruit, 
denoting  that 
it  surrounds 
the  fruit  or 
seed.  This 
kind  of  peri- 
carp is  called 


>rolla—  Petals—  Stamens,  and  parts  of— Pistil,  and  parts  of— Calyx— Receptacle 
-Pericarp. 


PARTS  OF  THE  FLOWER.  21 

a  capsule,  or  little  chest ;  at  a  is  a  row  of  fine  fibres,  which 
connect  the  valves  or  pieces  of  the  capsule,  and  through  which 
the  seeds  are  admitted.  At  b  the  capsule  appears  as  if  cut 
transversely,  shewing  three  cells  or  apartments,  each  contain- 
ing two  triangular  seeds  (b,  b). 

These  7  parts  constitute  what  are  called  the  organs  of  Fruc- 
tification,* viz. 

Calyx,  the  cup.         Pericarp,       containing  the  seed. 

Corolla, .  blossom.         Seed,  rudiment  of  a  new 

Stamens,  organs   within  plant. 

the  corolla.         Receptacle,    top  of  the  stem. 
Pistil,         central  organ. 

We  have  now  examined  each  part  of  a  flower ;  this  is  one 
kind  of  analysis,  or  separation,  but  there  is  another  kind  of 
analysis  with  which  you  are  now  to  be  made  acquainted,  viz. 
that  which  we  employ  in  finding  out  the  Botanical  name  of  a 
plant. 

DIVISION    OF   PLANTS    INTO    CLASSES,    &C. 

According  to  the  system  now  most  used  by  botanists,  plants 
are  divided  into  twenty-one  classes.  Each  class  is  divided  into 
Orders,  the  Orders  into  Genera,f  and  the  Genera  into  Species. 
The  name  of  the  genus  is  like  a  family  name  or  surname  ;  the 
name  of  the  species  is  like  the  particular  or  Christian  name  ;  for 
example  ;  the  Rose  family  contains  many  different  species ;  as 
Rosa  alba,  the  white  rose,  Rosa  damascena,  the  damask  rose, 
&c. 

The  specific  or  individual  name  in  botany,  is  placed  after 
the  family  name,  as  Rosa  alba,  which  is  Rose  white,  instead  of 
white  rose  :  this  circumstance  is  probably  owing  to  the  names 
being  in  Latin ;  as  in  that  language  the  adjective  is  generally 
placed  after  the  noun,  instead  of  before  it,  as  in  English. 


LECTURE   III. 

Method  of  analyzing  plants. — Analysis  of  the  Pink,  Lily,  Rose, 
and  Poppy. 

WHEN  you  begin  to  analyze  plants,  you  will  meet  with 

*  From  fructus  fruit,  and  J ado  to  make,  signifying  that  those  parts  serve  to 
the  maturing  of  the  fruit. 

t  Plural  of  genus,  a  family  or  tribe. 

Seed — Organs  of  fructification — Number  of  Classes — Genus — Species, 


22 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  PINK. 


many  new  terms.  It  will  be  necessary  in  these  cases,  to  re- 
sort to  the  vocabulary  of  botanical  words  ;*  by  the  obsorvation 
of  plants,  connected  with  definitions,  you  will  soon  become  fa- 
miliar with  the  technical  terms  of  Botany. 

We  will  now  proceed  to  analyze  a  flower  in  order  to  ascer- 
tain its  botanical  name.     We  will  commence  with  the  Pink,  as 
you  are  provided  with  a  drawing  which  you  can  examine  if 
you  have  no  natural  flower.f 
s  Analysis  of  the  Pink. 

^•4-  The  first  step, 

is  to  find  the 
class.  We  will 
suppose  this 
flower  to  be- 
long to  one  of 
the  frst  ten 
classes;  in  this 
case,  all  you 
have  to  do,  is 
to  ascertain  the 
number  of  sta- 
mens, as  by 
this  .circum- 
stance only  all 
these  cl 
are  arranged. 

Because  there  are  ten  stamens  (Fig.  4),  the  Pink  is  in  the 
10th  class,  the  name  of  which  is  Decandria.  Having  now 
ascertained  its  class,  the  second  s:ep  is  to  find  its  order.  In  the 
first  12  classes,  the  orders  depend  on  the  number  of  pistils ; 
these,  you  must  count ;  b< -cuu.su  )<>u  find  tiro  (Fig.  4,  6),  you 
consider  your  flower  as  belonging  to  the  2nd  order,  the  name 
of  which  is  Digynia. 

You  must  now  turn  to  the  description  of  the  Genera  of  plants  $ 
find  class  10th,  order  2nd.  The  third  step  is  to  ascertain  the 
genus  of  your  plant ;  for  this  purpose,  you  must  compare  it 
with  each  genus,  until  you  find  it  described.  You  find  first, 

*  This  is  placed  in  the  latter  part  of  this  volume. 

t  In  analyzing  a  natural  flower,  it  is  necessary  to  separate  the  parts  ;  first» 
if  there  is  a  calyx,  remove  it  carefully,  th'jn  take  off  the  corolla,  or  i I  it  is  mo- 
nopetalous,  cut  it  open  with  a  knife.  A  microscope  is  necessary  if  the  organs 
are  very  small. 

t  This  follows  Part  IV. 


First  step  in  the  analysis  of  the  Pink — second  step — third  step. 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  PINK. 


23 


w  *  *  *  «  HYDRANGEA.  Calyx  5  tooth- 
id,  superior ;"  your  calyx  is  5 
toothed,  (see  the  notches  around 
the  top  of  it,  at  Fig.  5,  a ;)  but  it 
is  not  superior,  that  is,  it  does 
not  stand  upon  the  germ.  You 
must  go  to  the  next  genus. 

"  SAXIFRAGA.     Calix  5  part- 
ed, half  superior,"  but  your  ca- 
lyx is  not  half  superior,  or  part-  , 
ly  above  the  germ.     You  must 
go  to  the  next  genus. 

"  SAPONARIA.  Calyx  inferi- 
or, (under  the  germ  ;)  1  leafed,  (all  of  one  piece  ;)  tubular,  (long 
and  hollow  like  a  tube  ;)  5  toothed," — so  far  the  description 
agrees  with  the  Pink  ;  next,  calyx  without  scales,  (see  fig.  5,£.) 
In  this  particular,  your  flower,  the  calyx  of  which  has  scales, 
does  not  correspond  with  the  description,  therefore  you  must 
go  to  the  next  genus. 

DIANTHUS.  Calyx  inferior,  cylindrical,  (much  the  same  as 
tubular  ;)  I  leafed,  with  four  or  eight  scales  at  the  base  ;  petals 
fve,  Fig.  4,  a,  with  claws,  (long  and  slender  at  the  base ;)  cap- 
sule cylindrical,  1  celled,  (having  no  partings ;)  dehiscent,  (open- 
ing at  the  top.)  Fig.  5,  at  c,  represents  the  capsule  of  the  pink 
as  it  appears  in  a  mature  state,  the  valves  or  pieces  which 
compose  it,  opening  spontaneously,  as  if  for  liberating  the  seed ; 
at  d,  the  capsule  appears  cut  horizontally,  showing  but  one  cell, 
which  contains  many  seeds.  Fig.  4,  at  c,  represents  the  germ, 
as  seen  when  the  pink  is  in  blossom.  Your  flower  agreeing 
with  every  particular  in  the  description  of  the  last  mentioned 
genus,  you  may  be  certain  that  you  have  found  the  generic  or 
family  name  of  the  Pink,  which  is  DIANTHUS. 

But  there  are  several  individuals  or  species  in  this  family  ; 
you  wish  to  know  to  which  species  of  Dianthus  the  Pink  be- 
longs ;  and  this  process  constitutes  a  fourth  step  in  your  anal- 
ysis. 

Turn  to  the  Alphabetical  Arrangement  of  Genera,*  where  the 
species  of  each  Genus  are  described,  and  look  for  Dianthus. 
Now  compare  the  description  of  each  species,  with  a  natural 
flower;  "  Armeria,  flowers  aggregate"  (in  a  thick  cluster;) 
this  does  not  agree ;  you  must  look  further. 

*  This  follows  the  Description  of  Genera. 


Fourth  step  in  the  analysis  of  a  plant. 


24  ANALYSIS  OF  THE  LILY. 

«  Barbatus,  flowers  fascicled,"  (crowded  together,)  but  your 
flower  grows  singly  on  each  stalk. 

"  Caryophyllus, flowers  solitary,  scales  of  the  calyx  sub,  (partly,) 
rhomboid,  (diamond  shape  ;)  very  short,  petal-s  crenate,  (scollop, 
ed  on  the  edge  :)  beardless,  (without  any  hair  or  down.) 

The  pink  is,  in  all  respects,  answerable  to  this  description. 
It  is  also  added  that  the  "  leaves  are  linear,"  which  signifies 
long,  and  of  nearly  equal  width  ;  "subulate"  signifies  pointed 
at  the  end,  like  a  shoemaker's  awl ;  "  channelled"  signifies  hav- 
ing a  groove  or  channel  running  through  the  leaf. 

You  have  now  found  the  name  of  your  plant  to  be  DIAN- 
THUS  caryophyllus,  belonging  to 

Class  10th,  DECANDRIA.     Order  2d,  DIGYIYIA.* 

And  in  this  way  it  should  be  labelled  for  an  herbarium  or  col- 
lection of  dried  plants. 

Let  it  now  be  remembered  that  in  this  process,  four  distinct 
steps  have  been  taken  ;  the  first,  to  find  the  class;  second,  the 
order  ;  third,  the  genus ;  and  fourth,  the  species. 

You  can  now  proceed  with  the  analysis  of  any  plant  which 
belongs  to  the  first  ten  classes,  in  the  same  manner  as  you  have 
done  with  the  Pink ;  as  all  these  classes  depend  upon  the  cir- 
cumstance of  the  number  of  stamens. 

Analysis  of  the  Lily. 

In  analyzing  the  Lily  you  can  refer  to  Figures  1st,  2d,  and 
3d ;  you  will  find  this  flower  belonging  to  the  6th  class,  the 
name  of  which  is  HEXANDRIA  ;  and  to  the  1st  order,  MONOGY- 
NIA.  This  order  containing  a  great  many  genera,  is  divided 
into  several  sections.^ 

1st  Section  contains  flowers  "  with  a  perianth"  (that  is,  a  kind 
of  calyx,)  and  "  corolla  without  a  spatha,"  (a  kind  of  wrapper.) 

The  Lily  has  no  calyx,  therefore  you  will  not  find  it  in  this 
section. 

2nd  Section.  "  With  a  spatha  or  glume,  (a  kind  of  sheath,) 
without  a  perianth." 

The  Lily  has  no  spatha  or  glume,  therefore  it  is  not  in  this 
section. 

3d.  Section.     "  Flowers  having  no  calyx." 

The  Lily  has  no  calyx,  therefore  you  may  expect  to  find  it 
described  under  this  section.  You  can  proceed,  as  in  the  Pink, 

*  The  student  can  consult  the  synopsis  of  artificial  classes  and  orders  to  as- 
certain the  etymology  of  their  names  ;  the  whole  system  has  not  been  introdu- 
ced before,  because  it  is  thought  better  to  lead  the  mind,  by  gradual  induc- 
tion,-to  generalize  for  itself. 

t  The  pupil  must  turn  to  Class  VI.,  Order  L,  in  the  Description  of  Genera. 

Analysis  of  the  Lily— parts  of  the  plant  referred  to  in  describing  the  genus. 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  ROSE.  25 

to  compare  each  genus  with  your  flower,  till  you  find  a  descrip- 
tion which  corresponds  with  the  Lily. 

" HEMEROCALLIS.  "Corolla  six  parted."  Six  parted  shows 
that  the  corolla  is  all  of  one  piece,  having  divisions  around  the 
border.  The  Lily  is  not  six  parted,  but  has  six  petals,  there- 
fore you  need  look  no  farther  in  this  genus. 

"  LILIUM."  Now  compare  each  particular  in  this  description 
with  your  flower,  (looking  out;  the  terms  in  the  vocabulary,)  and 
you  will  find  an  agreement  in  every  respect. 

In  the  description  of  a  genus,  nothing  is  said  about  any  part 
of  the  plant,  except  the  different  organs  which  compose  the 
flower;  in  the  species,  the  distinctions  are  chiefly  drawn  from 
different  circumstances  of  the  leaves,  stems,  <fyc. 

The  flowers  of  two  plants  may  agree  so  as  to  belong  to  the 
same  genus,,  while  the  leaves,  stalks,  and  branches  are  very 
unlike,  and  the  plants  are  therefore  considered  as  belonging  to 
different  species. 

Thus  in  the  genus  Lilium,  the  shape  of  the  leaves,  the  man- 
ner in  which  they  grow  on  the  stem,  the  height  of  the  stem,  the 
number  of  flowers  growing  upon  the  stem,  the  manner  in  which 
they  grow  whether  erect  or  nodding,  and  the  shape  of  the  co- 
rolla; all  these,  and  some  other  circumstances,  distinguish 
the1  different  species.  The  colour,  a  quality  of  the  flower 
usually  the  most  striking,  is,  in  botany,  little  regarded,  while 
many  other  circumstances,  which  might  at  first  have  been 
scarcely  noticed,  are  considered  as  important. 

In  the  llth  class,  Icosandria,  and  the  12th  class,  Polyandria, 
we  are  to  remark,  not  only  the  number  of  stamens,  which  is 
always  more  than  ten ;  but  the  manner  in  which  they  are  inserted, 
or  the  part  of  the  flower  on  which  they  are  situated.  If  in  pull- 
ing off  the  corolla,  the  stamens  remain  upon  the  calyx,  the 
plant  belongs  to  the  1 1th  class ;  but  if  the  corolla  and  calyx 
may  be  both  removed,  and  the  stamens  still  remain  on  the  re- 
ceptacle, the  plant  is  of  the  12th  class. 

It  is  .said  that  no  poisonous  plant  has  the  stamens  growing  on 
the  calyx  ;  it  is  in  the  1 1th  class  that  we  find  many  of  our  most 
delicious  fruits,  as  the  Apple,  Pear,  &c. 

Analysis  of  the  Rose. 

The  rose,  on  account  of  its  beauty,  is  one  of  the  most  con- 
spicuous flowers  in  the  1 1th  class  ;  it  is  considered  as  one  of  the 
most  interesting  of  the  vegetable  race,  and  is  often  dignified 
with  the  title  of  "  queen  of  flowers." 

in  the  species. — New  ckcumstanees  to  be  considered  in  the   llth  and  12tU 
classes— Analysis  of  the  Rose, 

3 


26  ANALYSIS  OF  THE  POPPY. 

You  will  perceive,  on  examining  the  formation  of  the 
Rose,  that  its  numerous  stamens  are  attached  to  the  calyx.  A 
more  perfect  idea  of  their  situation  may  be  obtained,  by  re- 
moving the  petals  and  cutting  the  calyx  longitudinally.  There- 
fore,  because  it  has  more  than  ten  stamens  growing  upon  the 
calyx,  it  belongs  to  the  llth  class,  Icosandria.  The  pistils  be- 
ing more  than  ten,  it  is  of  the  13th  order,  Polygynia.  It  be- 
longs to  the  genus  Rosa. 

The  shape  of  the  calyx  is  "  urnform ;"  the  calyx  is  "  inferi- 
or "  or  below  the  germ;  it  is  "Jive  cleft"  or  has  five  divisions 
around  the  border;  "it  is  fleshy"  or  thick  and  pulpy,  "contract- 
ed towards  the  top;"  "petals  5,"  (this  is  always  the  case  with  a 
rose  in  its  natural  state,  unassisted  by  cultivation;)"  seeds  nu- 
merous, bristly, fixed  to  the  sides  oj  the  calyx  within." 
<°  There  is  no  seed  vessel,  or  proper  pericarp  to  the  rose ;  but 
the  calyx  swells  and  becomes  a  dry,  red  berry,  containing 
many  seeds. 

The  genus  Rosa  contains  many  species,  distinguished,  one 
from  another,  by  the  different  shape  of  the  germ,  the  smooth- 
nessf  or  roughness  of  the  stems,  the  presence  or  absence  of 
thorns,  the  shape  of  the  leaves,  and  the  manner  in  which  the 
flowers  grow  upon  the'Wftks,  whether  solitary  or  crowded  to- 
gether in  pairs  or  scattered,  and  whether  erect  or  drooping. 

The  Moss  rose,  (RosAmuscosa,)  is  distinctly  marked  by  the 
hairs,  resembling  moss,  which  cover  the  stems  of  the  calyx ; 
these  hairs  are  a  collection  of  glands  containing  a  resinous 
and  fragrant  fluid. 

The  apple  blossom  ap'^pars  like  a  little  rose ;  its  calyx  be- 
comes thick  ancP^Jjlpy,  and  at  length  constitutes  that  part 
which  we  usually  call  the  fruit,  though  strictly  speaking, 
the  seed  only,  is  the  fruit.  On  examining  an  apple,  you  may 
notice,  at  the  end  opposite  the  stem,  the  five  divisions  of  the 
calyx. 

Analysis  of  the  Poppy. 

The  B|J>py  affords  a  good  illustration  of  the  12th  class,  Po- 
lyandria ;  here  are  numerous  stamens,  always  more  than  ten, 
sometimes  more  than  a  hundred,  growing  upon  the  receptacle; 
the  Poppy  has  but  one  pistil,  and  therefore  belongs  to  the  first 
order,  Monogynia ;  the  genus  is  PAPAVER.  The  Poppy  has  a  "  ca- 
lyx of  two  leaves"  but  these  fall  off  as  soon  as  the  blossom  expands, 
and  are  therefore  called  "  caducous ;"  the  corolla  (except  when 
double)  "  is  four  petaled ;"  it  has  no  style,  but  the  stigma  is  set 
upon  the  germ,  and  is  therefore  said  to  be  sessile. 

— why  is  t  in  the  llth  class  ? — why  the  13th  order? — Generic  characters  of 
the  rose— Circumstances  which  distinguish  the  different  species  of  the  genus 
Rosa— Apple  blossom  and  fruit— Analysis  of  the  Poppy. 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  POPPY.  27 

The  germ  is  large  and  somewhat  oblong,  the  stigma  is  flat 
and  radiated.  The  pericarp  is  one-celled  or  without  divisions,  it 
opens  at  the  top,  by  pores,  when  the  seeds  are  ripe.  The  spe- 
cies of  Papaver  which  is  cultivated  in  gardens,  is  the  somnifer- 
um,  which  name  signifies  to  produce  sleep.  It  is  often  called 
Opium  Poppy. 

By  observing  the  figures  which  stand  at  the  right  hand  of 
PAPAVER  in  the  description  of  genera,  and  also  of  species,  you 
will  find  to  what  natural  order  the  plant  belongs.  The  num- 
ber 27  refers  to  the  natural  orders  of  Linnreus ;  on  looking  for 
these  you  will  find  against  this  number  Rhceadcea,  which  includes 
plants  with  capsules  and  caducous  calyxes.  Such  plants,  as  to 
medicinal  properties  are  anodyne  (causing  sleep),  and  antiscor- 
butic (curing  eruptions). 

The  number  62  points  to  the  natural  orders  of  Jussieu  ;*  on 
referring  to  these,  you  will  find  this  number  to  stand  against 
Papaveracea,  which  is  a  word  in  the  plural  number,  signify- 
ing poppy-like  plants.  You  cannot  at  present  understand 
what  is  meant  by  natural  orders  or  natural  families,  but  when 
you  have  become  familiar  with  the  analysis,  and  different  parts 
of  plants,  we  will  give  an  explanation  of  these  orders,  and  of 
the  principles  by  which  they  are  arranged. 

In  the  commencement  of  a  new  science,  it  is  not  to  be  ex- 
pected that  every  idea,  or  principle  of  arrangement  will  seem 
perfectly  clear,  as  such  may  often  relate  to  other  principles  not  yet 
explained.  In  architecture,  we  know  it  would  be  impossible  to 
form  a  clear  idea  of  the  use  or  beauty  of  a  particular  part  of 
an  edifice,  until  it  was  considered  in  its  relation  to  the  whole. 
The  beginner  in  any  branch  of  scientific  knowledge,  is  not  like 
one  travelling  a  straight  road,  where  every  step  is  so  much 
ground  actually  gained ;  but  the  views  which  he  takes  are  like 
the  faint  sketches  of  a  painter,  which  gradually  brighten  and 
grow  more  definite  as  he  advances. 

The  idea  which  was  formerly  entertained,  that  students  must' 
learn  perfectly,  every  thing  as  they  proceed,  appears  to  be  found- 
ed upon  a  wrong  view  both  of  the  nature  of  the  mind,  and  of 
the  sciences.  The  memory  may  be  so  disciplined  as  to  retain  a 
great  many  words,  but  words  are  only  valuable  as  instru- 
ments of  conveying  knowledge  to  the  mind ;  and  if,  after 
a  careful  attention  to  a  subject,  something  in  your  lessons  may 
appear  obscure,  you  must  not  be  discouraged  by  attributing  the 

*  The  table  of  contents  will  shew  where  the  natural  orders  are  to  be  found. 

Natural  order,  how  pointed  out— Remarks  respecting  the  commencement  of 
a  new  science— Words  of  use  only  as  instruments. 


28  ANALYSIS  OF  THE  POPPY. 

difficulty  to  the  duiness  of  your  own  faculties ;  it  may  arise  from 
want  of  clearness  in  an  author's  style,  or  the  subject  may  be 
connected  with  something  which  is  to  follow ;  therefore,  you 
should  patiently  proceed,  with  the  hope  and  expectation  that 
difficulties  will  gradually  disappear. 

We  shall  not  at  present  give  any  more  examples  of  analyzing 
plants.  With  even  the  little  practice  you  have  now  had,  you 
can  analyze  flowers  of  any  of  the  first  thirteen  classes  ;  but  it 
is  necessary  for  you  to  know  before  proceeding  farther,  that  the 
two  circumstances  of  the  number  and  insertion  of  the  stamens, 
are  not  all  that  you  are  to  talte  into  consideration,  in  tli 
rahgement  of  the  classes ;  this  was  not  sooner  observed,  that 
your  minds  at  first  might  not  be  confused  with  too  many  IK  w 
ideas. 

You  are  now  prepared  to  comprehend  the  general  features 
of  the  Linnaean  system*  and  to  study  the  whole  of  the  classes 
and  orders  in  a  connected  view.  Before  proceeding  to  this,  it 
seems  necessary  that  you  should  have  some  knowledge  of  Greek 
and  Latin  numerals.  In  our  next  lecture  we  shall  commence, 
by  this  necessary  preparation,  and  shall  then  explain  the  char- 
acters  of  the  classes  and  orders,  and  illustrate  the  same  by  draw- 
ings.  Sensible  objects  are  of  great  assistance  to  the  mind,  by 
enabling  it  to  form  definite  ideas  of  the  meaning  of  words.  In 
abstract  studies  we  cannot  have  such  aid ;  and  in  order  to  com- 
prehend  instructions  given  upon  them,  it  is  necessary  that  the 
definitions  of  words  should  be  well  understood.  Many  persons 
are  satisfied  with  a  general  notion  of  the  meaning  of  abstract 
terms ;  thus,  they  speak  of  "  a  sensation  of  pity,"  when  they 
mean  an  emotion.  A  more  critical  knowledge  of  the  mdaning 
of  words,  would  enable  them  to  perceive,  that  sensation  is  a 
term  appropriated  to  that  state  of  the  mind  which  immediately 
follows  the  presence  of  an  external  object :  it  depends  on  the 
connexion  between  the  body  and  the  mind.  The  mind,  separa- 
ted from  all  the  organs  of  sense,  could  have  no  sensations  ;  but 
it  could  have  emotions,  for  they  are  feelings  which  the  mind  has, 
independently  of  the  senses. 

The,  great  advantage  of  pursuing  studies  which  relate  to  ma- 
terial objects,  is,  as  we  have  before  remarked,  in  being  able  to 
illustrate  principles,  and  define  terms  by  a  reference  to  those 
objects  themselves,  or  to  delineations  of  them. 


Assistance  which  the  mind  derives  from  sensible  object*— Example  of  using 
terms  indefinitely. 


LECTURE   IV. 

Latin  and  Greek  numerals. — Artificial  classes  and  orders. 

WE  shall  now  present  you  with  a  list  of  Latin  and  Greek  nu- 
merals;  these  it  is  necessary  to  commit  to  memory,  in  order 
that  you  may  understand  the  names  given  to  the  classes  and  or- 
ders. It  is  not  in  Botany  alone,  that  a  knowledge  of  these  nu- 
merals will  be  useful  to  you ;  many  words  in  our  common  lan- 
guage are  compounded  with  them ;  for  example — uniform,  from 
unus,  one,  and  forma,  form;  octagon,  from  octo,  eight,  and  gonia 
an  angle,  hexagon,  pentagon,  &c.  ;  decimal,  from  decem,  ten. 
These  few  examples  may  show  you  the  importance  of  knowing 
these  numerals,  which  will  serve  as  a  key  to  the  meaning  of 
many  words  in  common  use. 

NUMERALS. 
Numbers. 
1. 


Latin. 

Unus, 

Bis, 

Tres, 

Quatuor, 

Quinque, 

Sex,  , 

Septem, 

Octo, 

Novem, 

Decem, 

Undecem, 

Duodecem, 

Tredecem, 

Quatuordecem, 

Quindecem, 

Sexdecem, 

Septendecem, 

Octodecem, 

Novemdecem, 

Viginti, 

Multus, 


2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 
Many. 


Greek. 

Monos, 

Dis, 

Treis. 

Tettares. 

Pente. 

Hex. 

Hepta. 

Okto. 

Ennea. 

Deka. 

Endeka. 

Dodeka. 

Dekatreis. 

Dekatettares. 

Dekapente. 

Dekaex. 

Dekaepta. 

Dekaokto. 

Dekaennea. 

Eikosi. 

Polus. 


single, 
twice. 


THfE    CLASSES  OF   LINNJEUS. 

These  are  founded  upon  distinctions  observed  in  the  STAMENS. 
According  to  this  system,  all  known  plants  are  divided  into 
twenty-one  classes. 

Importance  of  understanding  Latin  and  Greek  numerals — Latin  numerals- 
Greek  numerals— Classes  of  Linnaeus,  on  what  founded  ? — HJW  many  ? 

3* 


30 


CLASSES  OF  LINNAEUS. 


The  first  twelve  classes  are  named  by  prefixing  Greek  numer- 
als to  ANDRIA,  which  signifies  stamen. 

CLASSES. 

Names.  Definitions. 

C    1.  MON- ANDRIA,  One  Stamen. 

2.  DI-ANDRIA,  T/ro  Stamens. 

3.  TRI-ANDRIA,  Three  Stamens. 

4.  TKTR-AMJRIA,  Four  Stamens. 
Number  of             5.  PENT-ANDRIA,  Five  Stamens- 
Stamens.            I     6.  HEX-ANDRIA,  Six  Stamens. 

7.  HEPT-AXDRIA,  Seven  Stamens. 

8.  OCT-AXDRIA,  Eight  Stamens. 

9.  ENNE- ANDRIA,  Nine  Starnens. 
.  10.  DEC-ANDRI  \,  Ten  Stamen*. 

Fig.  6. 


Number  and 
position. 


'11. 

(Eikosi.) 
20 

12.    POLY- ANDRIA, 

(Polus.) 
many. 

Fig.  7. 


r  Over  ten  Sta- 
mens inserted 
on  the  Calyx. 
Over  ten  Sta- 
mens inserted  on 
the  Receptacle. 


The  two  following  classes  are  named  by  infixing  Greek  nu- 
merals to  DYNAMIA,  which  signifies  poweflK  length. 

C  Two  Stamens  longer 
DYNAMIA,          <  or    more    powerful 
f  than  the  other  two. 


Number  and 
relative  length 


.MIA,  wnicn : 
?  13.  Di-i 


*  The  name  of  this  cj&ss  does  not  now  designate  its  character,  since  the  num- 
ber of  stamens  is  oftepmore  or  less  than  twenty. 

First  twelve,  how  named  1  —Those  which  depend  on  the  number  of  stamens — 
those  which  depend  on  number  and  position — Number  and  relative  length — Ex- 
plain the  signification  of  the  names  of  the  classes  now  described. 


CLASSES  OF  LINNAEUS. 


31 


^     C  C  Four  Stamens  longer 

Icx1    <  14.  TETRA-DYNAMIA,  <  or    more    powerful 
relative  length.  A  *   -  J 

Fig.  8. 


than  the  other  two. 


The  two  following  classes  are  named  by  prefixing  Greek  nu- 
merals, to  the  word  ADELPHIA,  which  signifies  brotherhood. 

(  Stamens  united   by 

15.  MON-  ADELPHIA,     <  their  filaments  in  one 

f  set  or  brotherhood. 

16.  Di-  ADELPHIA,  Two  brotherhoods. 
The  next  class  is  named  by  prefixing  SYN, 

signifying  together,  to  GENESIA,  which  signi- 
fies growing  up. 

17.  SYN-GEHESIA, 

Fig.  9. 


Connexion. 


Jtowers  compound. 


The  next  class  is  named  by  an  abbreviation  of  the  word  GYNIA, 
which  signifies  pistil,  prefixed  to  ANDRIA,  showing  that  the  sta- 
mens and  pistil  are  united. 

18.  GYN-ANDRIA,         \  Stamens  growing  out 

I  of  the  pistil. 
The  two  following  classes  are  named  by 

prefixing  numerals  to  (ECIA,  which  signifies  a 

house. 

f  Stamens  and  Pistils 
j  on  separate  corollas 
\  upon  the  same  plant, 
t  or  in  one  house. 


Position. 


19.  MON-CECIA, 


What  classes  depend  on  the  connexion  of  the  stamens  ? — Explain  the  signi- 
fication of  their  names— What  classes  depend  on  the  position  of  the  stamens  ? 


ORDERS  OF  LINN.EUS. 


Position. 


f  Stamens  and  Pistils 
J  in  separate  corollas 
|  upon  different  plants 
I  or  in  two  houses. 


The  name  of  the  last  class  is  a  compound  of  two  Greek 
words,  CRYPTO  and  GAMIA,  signifying  a  concealed  union. 

f  Stamens  and  Pistils 

Natural.  <!  21.  CRYPTO-GAMIA,     \  ininsible.or  loo  small 

i  |  to   be  seen  with  the 

[naked  eye. 
Fig.  11. 


Lichens.  Mushrooms.  Ferns.  Mosses. 

The  number  of  classes  as  arranged  by  Linnaeus,  was  twenty, 
four.  Two  of  them,  Poly-delphia,  (many  brotherhoods,) 
which  was  the  eighteenth  class ;  and  Poly-gamia,  (many  unions,) 
the  twenty -third  class,  have,  by  late  botanists,  been  rejected  as 
unnecessary. 

The  eleventh  class,  Dodecandria,  which  included  plants 
whose  flowers  contain  from  twelve  to  twenty  stamens,  has  been 
more  recently  omitted.  The  plants  which  belong  to  these  have 
been  distributed  among  the  other  classes. 

A  few  botanists  retain  the  whole  twenty-four ;  among  Ame- 
rican writers  who  adopt  but  twenty-one,  are  Eaton,  Torrey,  and 
Nuttall. 

THE  ORDERS  OF  LINN^US. 

The  orders  of  the  first  twelve  classes  are  founded  upon  the 
number  of  PISTILS. 


What  does  Gynandria  signify  ? — Monoecia  ? — rDicecia  ? — Natural  Class — 
Classes  omitted — Orders  of  the  first  twelve  classes,  on  what  founded  ? 


ORDERS  OF  LINNAEUS. 


33 


Orders  found 
in  the  first 
twelve  classes. 


No.  of  pistils. 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6.  this  order  seldom  found. 

7.  this  still  more  unusual. 

8.  very  rare. 

9.  very  rare. 
10. 


The  orders  are  named  by  prefixing  Greek  numerals  to  the 
word  GYNIA,  signifying  pistil. 

ORDERS. 

Names. 

1.  MONO-GYNIA, 

2.  Dl-GYNIA, 

3.  TRI-GYNIA, 

4.  TETRA-GYNIA, 

5.  PENTA-GYNIA, 

6.  HEXA-GYNIA/ 
7i  HEPTA-GYNIA, 

8.  OCTO-GYNIA, 

9.  ENNEA-GYNIA, 
10.  DECA-GYNIA, 

^  13.  POLY-GYNIA,  over  ten  pistils. 
The  classes  vary  as  to  the  number  of  orders  which  they 
contain. 

The  orders  of  the  13th  class,  Didynamia,  are  but  two. 
1.   GYMNOSPERMIA.     From  GYMNO,  signifying  naked,  and 
SPERMIA,  signifying  seed,   implying 
that  the  seeds  are  not  covered. 
From  ANGIO,  signifying  bag  or  sack, 
added  to  SPERMIA,  implying  that  the 
seeds  are  covered. 
The  orders  of  the  14th  class,  Tetradynamia,  are  two,  both 
distinguished  by  the  form  of  the  fruit. 

1.  SIUCULOSA.     Fruit,  a  silicula,  or  roundish  pod. 

2.  SILIQUOSA.     Fruit,  a  siliqua,  or  long  pod. 

The  orders  of  the  15th  class,  Monadelphia,  and  of  the  16th 
class,  Diadelphia,  are  founded  on  the  number  of  stamens,  that 
is,  on  the  characters  of  the  first  twelve  classes,  and  they  have 
the  same  names  as  Monandria,  &c. 

The  17th  class,  Syngenesia,  has  its  five  orders  distinguished 
by  different  circumstances  of  the  florets,  as  ; 

1.  EQUALIS.     Stamens  and  pistils  equal,  or  in  proportion  ;  that 

is,  each  floret  has  a  stamen,  a  pistil,  and  one  seed.     Such 
florets  are  called  perfect. 

2.  SUPERFLUA.     Florets  of  the  disk  perfect,  of  the  ray  contain. 

ing  only  pistils,  which  without  stamens  are  superfluous. 

3.  FRUSTRANEA*.     Florets  of  the  disk  perfect,  of  the  ray  neu- 

tral, or  without  the  stamen  or  pistil ;  therefore  frustrated, 
or  useless. 

4.  NECESSARIA.     Florets  of  the  disk  staminate,  of  the  ray  pis- 


seeds  usually  four 
lying  in  the  calyx. 

2.    ANGIOSPERMIA. 

seeds  numerous 
in  a  capsule. 


How  are  the  orders  named  ?— Orders  of  the  class  Didynamia— Of  Tetradyna- 
mia—Of  the  classes  Monadelphia  and  Diadelphia— Of  the  class  Syngenesia* 


34 


CLASSES  AND  ORDERS  OF  LINN^US. 


tillate ;  the  latter  being  necessary  to  the  perfection  of  the 
fruit. 
5.  SEGREGATA.     Florets  separated  from  each  other  by  partial 

calyxes,  or  each  floret  having  a  perianth.  • 

The  orders  of  the  18th  class,  Gynandria,  of  the  19th  class, 
Monoecia,  and  the  20th  class,  Dioecia,  like  those  of  the  15th 
and  16th  classes,  depend  on  the  number  of  stamens. 

The  orders  of  the  21st  class,  Cryptogamia,  constitute  six  na- 
tural families. 

1.  FILICES, — includes  all  Ferns,  having  the  fruit  on  the 
leaves. 

2.  Musci,- — Mosses. 

3.  HEPATICAE, — Liverworts,  or  succulent  mosses. 

4.  ALGAE, — Sea- weeds,  and  frog  spittle. 

5.  LICHENES, — Lichens,  found  growing  on  the  barks  of  old 
trees,  old  wood,  &c. 

6.  FUNGI, — Mushrooms,  mould,  blight,  &c.     . 

No  confusion  is  produced  in  taking  the  character  of  some 
classes,  for  orders  in  other  classes  ;  for  example :  if  you  have 
a  flower  with  ten  stamens,  united  by  their  filaments  into  one  set, 
you  know  by  the  definition  of  the  classes  that  it  belongs  to  the 
class  Monadelphia,  you  can  then,  because  it  has  ten  stamens, 
place  it  in  the  order,  Decandria. 

Having  explained  the  principles  on  which  the  artificial 
classes  and  orders  are  founded,  we  will  now  place  them  before 
you,  in  a  synoptical  or  general  view. 

•'SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  CLASSES  AND  ORDERS  OF  LINNAEUS." 
CLASSES.  ORDERS. 

1.  MONANDRIA,  1  stamen. 

2.  DIANORIA,  2. 


Number  of 
Stamens. 


Number  and 
Position. 


Number  and 
relative 
Length.    ' 


3.  TRIANDRIA,  3. 

4.  TKTRANDRIA,  4. 
/>.   I'KNTANDRIA,  5. 

6.  HEXANDRIA,  6. 

7.  HEPTANDRIA,  7. 

8.  QCTANDRIA,  8. 

9.  ENNF.ANDRIA,  9. 

10.  DECANDRIA,  10. 

11.  ICOSANDRIA,    over   10 
stamens,  on  the  calyx. 

12.  PoLYANDRiA,many sta- 
mens, not  on  the  calyx. 


Number  of  styles  ;  if  styles  arc 
wanting,  number  of  sessile  stig- 


mas. Monogynia,  1  style  or  one 
sessile  stigma.  Digynia,  2.  Tri- 
gynia,  3.  Tetragynia,  4.  Pcn- 
tagynia,  5.  Hexagynia,  6.  llep- 
tagynia,  7.  Octogynia,  8.  Enne- 
agynia,  9.  Decagynia,  10.  Poly- 
gynia,  any  number  over  10. 


13.  DIDYNAMIA,  4  stamens  I  1.  Gymnospermia,  seeds  naked. 

2  of  them  longest.          1  2.  Angiospermia,  seeds    in  cap- 

14.  TKTRADYNAMIA,  6  sta-  |  sules. 

mens,4  of  them  longest.  |  1.  Siliculosa,  pod  short. 

J  2.  Siliquosa,  pod  long. 


Of  the  classes  Gynandria,  Monoecia,  and  Dicecia— Of  the  class  Cryptogamia 
— Synopsis  of  artificial  classes  and  orders. 


NATURAL  ORDERS. 


35 


n, 

|  16. 


Connexion  of 
the  Stamens) 
by  filaments  \ 
or  anthers.  17. 


Position  of 
the  Stamens 
relative  to 
the  Pistils. 


Characters  and  names  of  pre- 
ceding classes.  As,  1.  Monandria, 
2.  Diandria,  3.  Triandria,  4.  Te- 
trandria,  5.  Pentandria,  6.  Hexan- 
dria. 

Disk  and  ray  florets  compared. 
1.  ^Equalis,  2.  Superflu'a,  3.  Frus- 
tranea,  4.  Necessaria,  5.  Segre- 
gata. 


Characters  and  names  of  prece- 
ding classes,  (as  under  the  classes 
15  and  16,)  7.  Heptandria,  8.  Oc- 
tandria,  9.  Enneandria,  10.  Decan- 
dria,  12.  Polyandria,  16.  Monadel- 
phia. 


Invisible  or  J 
Caducous.      ', 


MONADELPHIA,       fila- 
ments united  in  1  set. 
DIADELPHIA,  filaments 
united  in  2  sets — papili- 
onaceous. 

SYNGENESIA,  anthers 
united — flowers  com- 
pound. 

GYNANDRIA,  stamens 
on  the  pistil,  distant 
from  corolla. 
MONCECIA,  stamens  in 
flowers  separate  from 
pistils,  on  the  same 
plant. 

DICECIA,  stamens  in 
flowers  separate  from 
pistils  on  separate  plants 

CRYPTOGAMiAjStamens  I  Natural  families.  1.  Filices,  2. 
invisible,  wanting,  or  }  Musci,  3.  Hepaticae,  4.  Algse,  5. 
very  caducous.  J  Lichens,  6.  Fungi.* 


We  have  now  exhibited  the  Linnsean  system ;  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  it  can  be  gained  only  by  a  series  of  inductions 
made  by  the  analysis  of  single  plants.  You  cannot  be  too 
much  impressed  with  the  idea,  that  a  knowledge  of  nature  can 
be  acquired  but -by  the*  observation  of  material  objects. 


LECTURE   V. 


the 


[The  beginner  in  Botany  may  omit  the  whole  of  the  fifth  Lecture,  except 
a  "Directions  for  pronouncing  the  names  of  plants."] 


Condensed  view  of  the  Natural  orders  of  Linn&us  and  Jussieu. 


After  you  have  analyzed  a  number  of  plants,  you  will  begin  to  observe  a 
striking  resemblance  in  many  genera,  and  your  own  minds  will  suggest  the 
propriety  of  arranging  them  into  groups,  without  any  reference  to  the  artificial 
class  or  order  where  they  may  have  been  placed.  We  thus  form  natural  fa- 
milies. 

Among  resemblances  which  give  rise  to  natural  families ;  are, 
1st,  resemblance  in  seeds, 
2d,  in  pericarps,  or  the  envelopes  of  seeds, 
3d,  in  stamens  and  pistils, 
4th,  in  corollas  and  calyxes, 
5th,  in  the  modes  of  inflorescence,  or  the  manner  in  which  the 

flowers  grow  together  upon  the  stalks, 
6th,  in  leaves, 
7th,  in  roots  and  stems. 

In  order  to  form  a  correct  idea  of  the  natural  methods  of  classification,  it  is 
necessary  to  observe  many  plants,  and  the  most  constant  characters  of  most  of 

*  Eaton. 

Synopsis  of  artificial  classes  and  orders — What  is  necessary  in  order  to  gain 
a  knowledge  of  nature  ? — Arrangement  of  plants  into  natural  families — Impor- 
tant resemblances  which  give  rise  to  natural  families. 


36  NATURAL  ORDERS  OF  LLNN^US. 

their  organs.  To  find  the  place  of  plants  in  the  artificial  classes  and  orders,  it 
is  only  necessary  to  observe  the  distinctions  of  the  stamens  and  pistils. 

You  will  therefore  recollect  that  Natural  Methods  depend  on  many  considera- 
tions ;  the  Artificial  System  is  founded  on  a  few  simple  principles. 

But  without  attempting  to  explain  to  you  the  peculiarities  of  Natural  Me- 
thods, we  will  now  place  before  you  those  of  Linnaeus  and  of  Jussieu. 
These  you  are  to  refer  to,  in  your  analysis  of  flowers,  rather  than  to 
study  in  regular  order.  The  physician  is  chiefly  conversant  with  the  natural 
characters  of  plants,  especially  with  such  as  are  connected  by  medicinal  qual- 
ities; he  would  say  of  one  group,  they  are  narcotics;  of  another,  these  are 
tonics  ;  of  another  that  they  are  refrigerants*  &c. 

Although  the  natural  method  is  of  the  greatest  utility,  its  chief  use  depends 
on  a  knowledge  of  the  artificial  system,  which  enables  us  to  find,  in  an  expedi- 
tious manner,  the  name  of  a  plant,  and  then  its  place  among  the  natural  families 
or  orders. 

Linmeus  did  not  suppose  his  natural  method  could  be  used  without  the  as- 
sistance of  the  artificial  system ;  but  he  considered  the  former  as  ingrafted  upon 
the  latter. 

NATURAL  ORDERS  OF  LINNAEUS. 

1.  PALM^E.    Palms  and  their  relatives ;  as  Cocoanut,  Frog's  bit.    Farinace- 
ous diet. 

2.  PIPERIT^.    Pepper  and  its  relatives.    IB  crowded  spikes ;  as  Indian- 
turnip,  sweet  flag.     Tonics  and  stomachics. 

3.  CALAMARI^C.    Reed-like  grasses,  with  culms  without  joints ;  as  cat-tail, 
sedge.     Coarse  cattle  fodder. 

4.  GRAMINA.    The  proper  grasses  with  jointed  culms;  as  Wheat,  Rye,  Oats, 
Timothy-grass,  Indian-corn.     Farinaceous  diet,  and  cattle  fodder. 

5.  TRIPETALOIDE^E.    Corol*  3-petalled,  or  calyx  3-leaved;  as  Water-plan- 
tain, Rush-grass,  Arrow-head.     Tonics  and  rough  cattle  fodder. 

6.  ENSAT.*.    Liliaceous  plants,  with  sword-form  leaves  ;  as  Iris,  Blue-eyed 
grass,  Virginian  spiderwort.    Antiscorbutics  and  tonics. 

7.  ORCHIDE/E.    With  fleshy  roots,  stamens  on  the  pistils,  pollen  glutinous, 
flowers  of  singular  structure,  with  the  germ  inferior  ;  as  Ladies'  slipper,  Are- 
thusa.     Farinaceous  diet  and  stomachics. 

8.  SCITAMINE.*.    Liliaceous  corols,  stems  herbaceous,  leaves  broad,  germ 
blunt-angular ;  as  Ginger,  Turmeric.     Warming  stomachics. 

9.  SPATHACE.*.    Liliaceous  plants  with  spathes;t  as   Daffodil,    Onion, 
Snow-drop.    Secernant  stimulants. 

10.  CORONARI^E.    Liliaceous  plants  without  spathes  ;  as  Lily,  Tulip,  Star- 
grass.    The  nauseous  scented  and  bitter  are  antiscorbutic  and  cathartic,  the 
others  Emollient.  ^ 

11.  SARMENTACE.S.   Liliaceous  corols  with  very  weak  stems;  as  Asparagus, 
Bell-wort.     Tonic*  and  Secernant  stimulants. 

12.  OLERACE*:  or  HOLERACE*:.    Having  flowers  destitute  of  beauty,  at 
least  of  gay  colouring;  as  Beet,  Blight,  Pig- weed,  Dock,  Pepperage.    If  nau- 
seous, Cathartic  ,•  others,  mild  stimulants  and  nutrientics. 

13.  SUCCULENT.*.    Plants  with  very  thick  succulent  leaves ;  as  Prickly- 
pear,  House-leek,  Purslane.    Antiscorbutic  and  Emollient. 

14.  GRUINALES.    Corpls  with  five  petals,  capsules  beaked  ;  as  Flax,  Wood- 
sorrel,  Cranes-bill.     Tomes  and  Refrigerants. 

15.  INUNDATAE.    Growing  under  water,  and  having  flowers  destitute  of 
beauty ;  as  Hippuris,  Pondweed.    Astringents. 

16.  CALYCIFLORAE.    Plants  without  corols,  with  the  stamens  on  the  ca- 
lyx ;  as  Poet's  cassia,  Seed  buckthorn.    Astringents  and  Refrigerants. 

*  In  explanation  of  these  terms,  see  vocabulary. 
t  Or  corolla.  t  Or  spathas. 

Difference  between  natural  methods  and  the  artificial  system — The  physi- 
cian chiefly  conversant  with  natural  methods — The  artificial  system  an  index 
to  natural  methods — Natural  orders  of  Linnaeus. 


NATURAL  ORDERS  OF  LINN^US.  37 

17.  CALYCANTHEM^E.    Calyx  on  the  germ  or  growing  to  it,  flowers  beauti- 
ful ;  as  Willow-herb,  Ludwigia,  OEnothera.     Astringents. 

18.  BICORNES.    Anthers  with  two  straight  horns ;  as  Whortleberry,  spicy 
and  bitter  Wintergreen,  Laurel.     Astringents. 

19.  HESPERIDES.    Sweet-scented,  leaves  evergreen;    as   Myrtle,  Cloves, 
Mock-orange.     Astringent  and  stomachic. 

20.  ROTACE./E.    Corols  wheel-form  ;  as  Gentian,  St.  John's  wort.     Tonics. 

21.  PRECISE.     Plants  with  early  spring  flowers,  of  an  elegant,  shewy  ap- 
pearance; as  Primrose.     Astringents. 

22.  CARYOPHYLLE^E.    Plants  with  caryophyllous  corols;  as  Pink,  Cockle. 
Astringent  and  Secernant  stimulants. 

23.  TRIHILATJE.    Flowers   with  3  stigmas,  capsules  inflated  and  winged, 
and  generally  three-seeded  with  distinct  hilums  ;  as  Nasturtion,  Horse-chesnut. 
Tonics  and  -Nutrientics. 

24.  CORYDALES.    Corols  spurred  or  anomalous;  as  Fumitory,  Touch-me- 
not.    Narcotic  and  Antiscorbutic. 

25.  PUTAMINEAE.  Plants  which  bear  shell-fruit ;  as  Caperbush.    Detergent 
and  Antiscorbutic. 

26.  MuLTisiLiQiLiE.    Having  several  pod-form  capsules  to  each  flower; 
as  Columbine,  Larkspur,  Rue,  American  cowslip.     Cathartic  and  Caustic. 

27.  RIICEADEAE.    Plants  wilh  caducous  calyxes, ,  and  capsules  or  siliques; 
as  Poppy,  Blcod-root,  Celandine.     Anodyne  and  Antiscorbutic. 

28.  LURIDAE.    Corols  lurid,  mostly  monopetalous ;  flowers  Pentandrous,  or 
Didynamous  with  capsules  ;  as  Tobacco,  Thorn-apple,  Night-shade,  Fox-glove. 
Narcotic  and  Antiscorbutic. 

29.  CAMPANACEAE.    Having  bell-form  corols,  or  those  whose  general  aspect 
is  somewhat  bell-form ;  as  Morning-glory,  Bell-flower,  Violet,  Cardinal  flower. 
Cathartics  and  Secernant  stimulants. 

30.  CONTORTS.    Corols  twisted  or  contorted;  as  Milk- weed,  Periwinkle, 
Choak-dog.     Cathartics  and  Antiscorbutics. 

31.  VEPRECUL,*:.    Having  monophyllous  calyxes,  coloured  like  corols ;  as 
Leatherwood,  Thesium.     Antiscorbutic  and  Emetic. 

32.  PAPILONACE^E    Having  papilionaceous  flowers ;  as  Peas,  Beans,  Locust- 
tree,  Clover.     Emollient,  Nutrientic. 

33.  LOMENTACE.E.    Having  legumes  or  loments,  but  not  perfect  papiliona- 
ceous flowers  ;  as  Cassia,  Sensitive  plant.     Emollient,  Astringent,  Cathartic. 

34.  CucuRBiTACEjE.    Fruit  pompion-like,  anthers  mostly  united ;  as  Me- 
lons, Cucumbers,  Passion-flower.     Cathartic  and  Refrigerant. 

35.''SENTicos.E.  Prickly  or  hairy,  with  Polypetalous  corols  and  a  number 
of  seeds  either  naked  or  slightly  covered;  as  Rose,  Raspberry,  Strawberry. 
Astringent  and  Refrigerant. 

36.  POMACE^E.    Having  many  stamens  on  the  calyx,  and  drupaceous  or  po- 
maceous  fruit ;  as  Pear,  Currant,  Cherry,  Peach.     Refrigerants. 

37.  COLUMNIFER^E.     Stamens  united  in  the  form  of  a  column;  as  Holly- 
hock, Mallows,  Cotton.     Emollient. 

38.  TRICOCC^E.    Having  3-celled  capsules  ;    as  Castor-oil  plant,  Spurge, 
Box.     Cathartic. 

39.  SiLiciuosvE.    Having  silique  pods  ;   as  Cabbage,  Mustard,  Shepherd- 
purse.     Antiscorbutic,  Nutrientic. 

40.  PERSONATE.     Having  personate  corols;    as    Snapdragon,    Monkey- 
flower.     Deobstruents  and  Cathartics. 

41.  AspERiFOLiiE.    Corqls  monopetalous,  with  5  stamens,  seeds  4,  naked, 
leaves  rough ;  as  Comfrey,  Stone-seed,  (lithospermum.)    Astringents  and  De- 
obstruents. 

42.  VERTICILLAT^;.    Having  Labiate  flowers ;  as  Sage,  Thyme,  Catmint, 
Motherwort.     Stomachics  nnd  Astringents. 

43.  DUMOS^E.    Bushy  pithy  plants  with  small  flowers,  petals  in  4  or  5  divi- 
sions ;  as  Sumach,  Eldfr,  Holly.     Tonic,  and  Cathartic. 

44.  SEPIARI*.     Having  mostly  tubular  divided  corols  with  few  stamens ; 
being  ornamental  shrubs  ;  as  Lilac,  Jasmine.     Astringent. 

45.  UMBELLATE.     Flowers  in  umbels  with  5-petalled  corols,  stamens  5, 
styles  2,  and  2  naked  seeds  ;  as  Fennel,  Dill,  Carrot,  Poison-hemlock.     Sto~ 
machic  and  Narcotic, 


38  NATURAL  ORDERS  OF  LINN.EUS. 

46.  HEDERACEJS.    Corols  5-cleft,  stamens  5  to  10.  fruit  berry-like  on  a  com- 
pound raceme  ;  as  Grape,  Ginst-ni:,  Spikenard.     Tonics  and  Refrigerants. 

47.  STELLATE.    Corols  4-rldi,  st:unc>ns  4,  seeds  2,  naked,  leaves  mostly 
whorled  ;  as  Bedstraw,  Dogwood,  Venus'  pride.     Tonics  and  Deobstruents . 

48.  AGGREGATE.    Having  aggregate  flowers;  as  Button-bush,  Marsh-rose- 
mary.    Tonics  and  Secernant  stimulant*. 

49.  COMPOSITE.    All  the  compound  flowers;  as  Sun-flower,  Boneset,  Tan- 
aey,  Thistle.     Tonics  and  Secernant  stimulants. 

50.  AMENTACE^E.    Bearing  pendant  amenta  ;  as  Hazle,  Oak,  Chesnut,  Wil- 
low.   Astringents. 

51.  CONIFERS.    Bearing  strobiles  ;  as  Pine,  Juniper,  Cedar.    Tonics  and 
Stomachics. 

52.  CoADUNAT^i.    Several  berry-like  pericarps,  which  are  adnate ;  as  Tu- 
lip-tree, Magnolia.    Tonics. 

53.  SCABRID.E.    Leaves  rough,   flowers  destitute  of  beauty  ;    as  Nettle, 
Hemp,  Hop,  Elm.    Astringents. 

54.  MISCELLANKJE.    Plants  not  arranged  by  any  particular  character ;   as 
Pond-lily,  Poke-weed,  Amaranth.    Their  qualities  are  various. 

55.  FILICES.     All  ferns  ;  as  Brakes,  Maiden-hair.     Secernant  stimulant*. 

56.  Musci.    All  mosses;   as  Polytrichum.      Cathartics  and  Secernant  sti- 
mulants. 

57.  ALGJE.   All  Liverworts,  Lichens  and  Sea- weeds  ;  as  Jungermannia, 
Fucus,  Usnea.     Tonics. 

58.  FUNGI.    All  funguses  ;  as  Mushroom, Toad-stool, Puff-ball,  Touchwood, 
Mould.     Tonics  and  Cathartics:'* 

General  Divisions  of  Jussieu. 

The  natural  orders  of  Jussieu  are  arranged  under  the  three  following  gene- 
ral divisions,  according  to  distinctions  observed  in  the  seed ;  viz.  into  Acotyle- 
donousj  MonocotyledonousJ  and  Dicotyledonous*  plants. 

First  Division. 

The  Acotyledonous  plants  correspond  to  the  class  Cryptogamia.ofthe  arti- 
ficial system. 

Second  Division. 

The  Monocotyledonous  plants  are  divided  into  three  classes  characterised, 
by  the  insertion  of  the  stamens  ;  the  1st  has  the  stamens  hyp<>gynous,  or  under 
the  pistil ;  as  the  grasses,  &c. ;  the  2d  has  the  stamens  perilous,  or  around 
the  pistil ;  as  the  palms,  &c. ;  the  3d  has  the  stamens  epigynous,  or  upon  the 
pistil ;  as  the  orchis,  &c. 

Third  Division. 

The  Dicotyledonous  plants  are  ten  times  more  numerous  than  tho  two  pre- 
ceding divisions  ;  the  different  classes  are  here  arranged  as  in  the  other  cases 
with  reference  to  the  absence  of  the  corolla,  its  presence,  and  the  number  of 
petals.  These  plants  are  divided  into  four  sections,  as  follows. 

The  first  section  Apetalous  (wanting  petals)  is  divided  into  three  classes. 
1st.  Comprehends  all  dicotyledonous  plants  destitute  of  a  corolla,  which  have 

the  stamens  epigynous  ;  as  wild  ginger. 
2d,  Comprehends  all  dicotyledonous  plants  destitute  of  a  corolla,  which  have 

the  stamens  perigynous  ;  as  dock,  &c. 
3d,  Comprehends  all  dicotyledonous  plants  destitute  of  a  corolla,  which  have 

the  stamens  hypogynous ;  as  plantain,  «fcc. 
The  second  section,  Monopetalous,  is  divided  into  four  classes. 
1st,  Comprehends  all  dicotyledonous,  monopetalous  plants,  which  have  the 

stamens  hypogynous ;  as  milkweed,  &c. 

*The  preceding  synopsis  of  artificial  classes  and  orders,  together  with  the 
natural  orders  of  Linnaeus,  are  quoted  from  Eaton,  by  permission, 
t  See  these  terms  in  the  vocabulary. 


Three  general  divisions  of  plants  by  Jussieu— Acotyledonous,  Monocotyledo- 
nous, how  divided— Dicotyledonous,  how  divided— First  section,  into  how 
many  classes  divided — Second  section,  how  divided. 


GENERAL  DIVISIONS  OF  JUSSIEU. 


39 


2d,  Differs  from  the  first  only  in  having  the  stamens  perigynous ;  as  the  win- 

tergreen,  &c. 
3d,  Differs  from  the  two  preceding,  in  having  stamens  epigynous,  and  antherg 

united  ;  as  lettuce,  &c. 

4th,  Differs  from  the  third  only  in  having  the  anthers  separate  ;  as  the  elder,  &c. 
The  third  section,  Polypetalous,  is  divided  into  three  classes. 
1st,  Stamens  epigynous :  as,  umbellate  flowers. 
2d,  Stamens  hypogynous  ;  as  cruciform  flowers. 
3d,  Stamens  perigynous  ;  as  the  rose,  &c. 
The  fourth  section  anomalous,  contains  the  15th  and  last  class  of  Jussieu. 

This  class  contains  the  melon,  hop,  oak,  &c. ;  it  corresponds  to  the  classes, 
Monoecia  and  Dioecia,  in  the  artificial  system. 

These  fifteen  classes  are  divided  into  100  families  or  orders. 


Names. 

1.  Fungi, 

2.  Algae, 

3.  Hepaticae, 

4.  Musci, 

5.  Filices, 

6.  Naiades, 


7.  Aroideae,1 

8.  Typhae,     . 

9.  Cyperoicleae, 

10.  Gramineae, 

11.  Palmae, 

12.  Asparagi, 

13.  Junci, 

14.  Liliaceae, 

15.  Bromeliae, 

16.  Asphodeli, 

17.  Narcissi, 

18.  Irides, 

19.  Musae,. 

20.  Cannae, 

21.  Orchidae, 


NATURAL  FAMILIES  OF  JUSSIEU. 

ACOTYLEDONOUS   PLANTS. 

CLASS  I. 


Examples. 
Mushroom,  mould, 
Lichen,  conferva, 
Brook  liverwort, 
Proper  mosses, 
Brakes,  polypod, 
Duck  meat, 


Properties. 

Tonic  if  dry,  narcotic  if  juicy. 
Tonic  some  used  in  dyeing. 
Tonic,  refrigerant. 
Tonic,  rarely  cathartic. 
Secernant  stimulants. 
Astringent. 


22.  Hydrocharides,  Tape  grass, 


MONOCOTYLEDONOUS  PLANTS. 

CLASS  II.    Stamens  below  the  pistil. 
Wild  turnip,  Warming,  stomachic  &  antispasmodic. 

Cat  tail,  Weak  tonic. 

Sedge  grass,  Tonic,  coarse  cattle  fodder. 

Timothy  grass,  Tonic,  farinaceous,  cattle  fodder. 

CLASS  III.     Stamens  surrounding  the  pistil. 
Date,  cocoanut,          Weak  tonic,  farinaceous. 
Solomon  seal,  Secernant  stimulant,  mild  tonic. 

Sweet  flag,  Secernant  stimulant,  antiscorbutic. 

Tulip,  addertongue,  Emollient,  weak  secernant  stimulant. 
Pine  apple,  Refrigerant. 

Onion,  hyacinth,        Expectorant,  tonic,  cathartic. 
Daffodil,  Weak  tonic,  emollient. 

Iris,  blue-eyed  grass,  Antiscorbutic,  tonic. 

CLASS  IV.     Stamens  on  thepistil. 
Bread-tree,  'Tonic. 

Ginger,  Warming  stomachic. 

Ladies'  slipper,          Emollient,  stomachic,  farinaceous. 


Weak  tonic. 


DICOTYLEDONOUS  PLANTS. 


Section  first,  flowers  apetalous. 
CLASS  V.    Stamens  on  the  germ. 

23.  Aristolochiae,  Wild  ginger,  Tonic,  warming  stomachic. 

CLASS  VI.     Stamens  surrounding  the  germ. 


24.  Aeleagni, 
25.  Thymeleae, 
26.  Proteae, 
27.  Lauri, 
28.  Polygoneae, 
29.  Atriplices, 

Pepperage  tree, 
Leather-wood, 
Silver  tree, 
Sassafras, 
Dock,  rhubarb, 
Beet,  pokeweed, 

Weak  tonic. 
Mild  emetic,  antiscorbutic. 
Weak  tonic. 
Secernant  stimulant,  stomachic. 
Mild  cathartic,  antiscorbutic. 
Aperient,  cathartic. 

Third  section — Fourth  section — Jussieu's  fifteen  classes,  into  how  many 
families  or  orders  divided. 


40 


NATURAL  FAMILIES  OF  JUSSIEU. 


Names. 

30.  Amaranthi, 

31.  Plantaginea, 

32.  Nyctagines, 

33.  PJumbagines, 


34.  Lysimachiae,    Loosestrife, 

35.  Pediculares,      Snakeroot, 

36.  Acanthi, 

37.  Jaamineae, 

38.  Vitices, 

39.  Labiatae, 


40.  Scrophulariae,  Foxglove, 


41.  Solaneae, 

42.  Boragineae, 

43.  Convolvuli, 

44.  Polemonia, 

45.  Bignoniae, 

46.  Gentianae, 

47.  Apocyneae, 
43.  Sapotae, 


CLASS  VII.     Stamens  below  the  germ. 

Examples.  Properties. 

Cock's  comb,  Weak  tonic,  secernant  stimulant. 

Plantain,  Emollitnf. 

Four  o'clock,  Cathartic,  emetic. 

Sea-lavender,  Cathartic,  tonic. 

Section  second.    Flowers  monoprtulous. 

CLASS  VIII.     Corollas  below  the  germ. 

Weak  tonic,  secernant  stimulant. 
Tonic,  nit fiurtir. 
Emollient,  weak  tonic. 
Tonic,  secernant  stimul'int. 
Deobstruent,  secernant  stimulant. 
Secernant  stimulant,  stowm-fiic,  tonic. 
Narcotic,  absorbent,  deobstrm  ,,t. 


Malabar  nut, 
Ash,  lilac, 
Vervain, 
Sage,  catnip, 


Red  pepper,  henbane, Narcotic,  cat hartic,  warming, stomachic. 


Astringent,  vulnerary,  emollient. 

Cathartic. 

Feeble  tonic. 

Cathartic,  narcotic. 

Cathartic,  tonic. 

Cathartic,  narcotic,  deobstruent. 

( •aftiurtir,  nut)  spasmodic. 


58.  Caprifolia, 


Comfrey, 
Jalap,  dodder, 
Lichnidia, 
Snake-head, 
Caroline  Pink, 
Milkweed, 
Sour  sop, 
CLASS  IX.     Corollas  surrounding  the  germ. 

49.  Guaiacanae,      Lignum  vita,  Tonic,  warming,  stomachic. 

50.  Rhododendra,  Laurel,  Tonic,  narcotic. 

51.  Ericae,  Wintergreen,  Tonic,  astringent,  refrigerant. 
52.Carapanulaceae,Lobelia,                      Cathartic,  emetic,  deobstruent. 

CLASS  X.     CoroUas  on  the  germ  —  anthers  united. 
63.  Cichoraceae,     Lettuce,  endive,         Aperient,  mild  anodyne. 

54.  Cinarocephalae,Th  stle,  burdock,       Tonic,  if  nauseous,  cathartic. 

55.  Corymbiferae,  Boneset,  fleabane,      Tonic,  secernant  stimulant. 

CLASS  XI.    Corollas  on  the  germ  —  anthers  separate. 

56.  Dipsaceae,         Button  bush,  teasel,  Weak  tonic. 

57.  Rubiaceae,       Bedstraw,venus  pride,  Weak  tonic,  aperient. 

Elder,  dogwood,         Tonic,  cathartic  if  nauseous. 
Section  third.     Flowers  polypetalous. 
CLASS  XII.    Stamens  on  the  germ. 

59.  Araliae,  Ginseng,  spikenard,    Tonic,  expectorant. 

60.  Umbelliferae,    Cicuta,  fennel,  Stomachic,  narcotic,  if  nauseous. 

CLASS  XIII.    Stamens  below  the  germ. 

61.  Ranunculaceae,Crowfoot,goldthread,Mzrco<ic,  astringent. 

62.  Papaveraceae,  Bloodroot,  poppy,  '    Narcotic,  anodyne. 

63.  Cruciferae,        Radish,  cabbage,       Emollient,  stomachic. 

Cleom  3,  mignonette,  Aperient,  narcotic,  if  nauseous. 

Soap-berry,  Emollient. 

Maple  tree,  Aperient. 

Barbadoes  cherry,      Aperient. 

John's  wort,  sundew,  TOTU'C,  vulnerary. 

Misseltos-rose,  Expectorant,  secernant  stimulant. 

Orange,  lemon,  Tonic,  refrigerant. 

Tea,  Astringent,  anodyne. 

Grape,  [um,  Astringent,  refrigerant. 

Wood-sorrel,  gerani-  Tonic,  refrigerant,  narcotic  if  nauseous 

Hollyhock,  Emollient,  aperient. 

White  wood,  Tonic,  aperient. 

Custard  apple,  Tonic,  aperient. 

Moonssed,  Feeble  narcotic. 

Witch  hazel,  Astringent,  refrigerant. 


64.  Cappnrides, 

65.  Sapindi, 

66.  Acera, 

67.  Malpighiae, 
63.  Hyperica, 

69.  Guttiferae, 

70.  Aurantia, 

71.  Miliae, 

72.  Vites, 

73.  Gerania, 

74.  Malvaceae, 

75.  Magnoliae, 

76.  Annonae, 

77.  Msnispsrma, 

78.  Berberides, 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  PRONOUNCING.  41 

Names.  Examples.  Properties. 

79.  Tiliaceae,  Basswood,  Emollient,  aperient. 

8D.  Cisti,  Rock-rose,  violet,  Tonic. 

81.  Rutaceae,  Rue,  Caustic,  narcotic. 

82.  Caryophillae,  Pink,  flax,  Emollient,  aperient. 

CLASS  XIV.     Stamens  surrounding  the  germ. 

83.  Sempervivae,  Houseleek,  live-forever,  Emollient,  vulnerary. 

84.  Saxitragae,        Saxifrege,  currant  leaf,  Tonic. 

85.  Cacti,  Prickly  pear,  currant,  Refrigerant,  emollient,  tonic. 

86.  Portulacceae,     Purslane,  Emollient,  vulnerary, 

87.  Ficoideae,         Ice  plant,  Emollient,  refrigerant. 
83.  Onagrae,            Scabish,  Tonic,  aperient. 

89.  Myrti,  Mock  orange,  Tonic. 

90.  Melastomae,      Deer-grass,  Feeble  tonic. 

91.  Salicariae,         Willow  herb,  Deobstruent,  cathartic, 

92.  Rosaceae,          Apple,  rose,  peach,  Refrigerant,  tonic,  astringent. 

93.  Leguminosae,    Cassia,  pea,  clover,  Aperient,  emollient. 

94.  Terebintaceae,  Sumach,  butternut,  Cathartic,  emetic,  narcotic. 

95.  Rhamni,         Winter  berry,  Jersey  tea,  Cathartic,  tonic. 

Section  fourth.    Diclinious  or  anomalous. 
CLASS  XV.     Flowers  mostly  apetalous. 

96.  Euphobeae,       Castot  bean,  Cathartic,  mild  emetic. 

97.  Cucurbitaceae,  Cucumber,  melon,     Cathartic,  refrigerant. 
93.  Urticae,  Hop,  hemp,  fig,          Tonic,  anodyne. 

99.  Amentaceae,     Oak,  willow,  elm,      Astringent  ionic,  emollient. 

100.  Coniferae,        Pine  tree,  cedar,         Expectorant,  secernant  stimulant. 
We1  shall,  in  considering  more  fully  the  principles  of  classification,  hereafter 

remark  on  the  comparative  merits  of  the  most  important  methods  of  botanical 
arrangement.  As  our  object  at  this  time  is  to  prepare  you  for  the  analysis  of 
plants,  it  may  be  well  to  give  you  a  few  simple  rules  for  pronouncing  their 
names,  which,  being  derived  from  foreign  languages,  cannot  be  accented  or 
divided  like  analogous  English  words. 

DIRECTIONS    FOR    PRONOUNCING    THE    NAMES    OP   PLANTS. 

BOTANICAL  names  of  plants  are  formed  according  to  the  anal- 
ogies of  the  ancient  languages,  chiefly  the  Latin.  Some  of  the 
most  common  terminations  of  names  of  Genera  and  Species, 
area,  um,  us,  and  is;  for  example, the  generic  names,  GERAR- 
DIA,  TRIFOLIUM,  pRUNus,  and  IRIS  ;  and  the  specific  names, 
virginica,  candidum,  blandus,  and  officinalis.  A  great  propor- 
tion of  Botanical  names  terminate  in  a,  in  which  case  it  has  the 
sound  of  a  in  father,  as  Rosa,  Viola,  &c. 

The  letter  e  at  the  end  of  a  word  is  always  to  be  sounded ; 
for  example,  anemone,  pronounced  anem'-o-ne. 

The  e  is  long  before  s  when  it  ends  a  word,  as  Bicor'nes. 

In  words  that  end  in  ides,  the  i  is  long,  as  in  Hesper'ides. 

The  vowels  ae  and  oe  are  often  used  as  dipthongs,  and  then 
have  the  sound  of  e,  as  Hepaticse,  pronounced  He-pat'i-ce,  and 

Di-oecia,  pronounced'  Di-e-cia. 

C  and  g,  as  in  English,  are  soft  before  e,  i,  and  y,  and  hard 

Botanical  names,  how  formed  ? — What  syllables  do  they  often  terminate  in  ? 
— a  at  the  end  of  words — e,  when  sounded  ? — When  long  ? — i  in  ides — The 
vowels  ae  and  oe — c  and  g. 

4* 


42  METHOD  OF  ANALYSIS, 

before  a,  o,  and  w.  The  soft  sound  of  c  is  like  5,  the  hard  sound 
like  k.  The  soft  sound  ofg  is  like  j,  the  hard  sound  like  g  in 
the  word  gave;  thus  Algae  is  pronounced  Al-je. 

Musci  Mus-si. 

The  letters  ch  are  hard  like  k,  as  in  Orchis;  pronounced 
Or-kis. 


LECTURE  VI. 

Method  of  analyzing  plants  by  a  series  of  comparisons. — Gene- 
ral remarks  upon  plants. — Method  of  preserving  Plants  for 
an  Herbarium. — Poisonous  Plants,  and  those  which  are  not 
poisonous. 

WHEN  we  dissect  a  plant,  or  examine  separately  each  of  its 
organs,  this  is  properly  analysis;  for  the  meaning  of  the  word 
analysis  is  a  separation;  but  when  we  speak  of  finding  out 
plants  by  analyzing  them,  we  mean  something  more  than  ex- 
amining each  part  of  the  flower;  this  is  indeed  the  first  step  in 
the  process ;  but  by  means  of  observing  these  organs,  we  are 
to  ascertain  the  Class,  Order,  Genus,  and  lastly  the  Species  of 
the  plant.  "  A  person  engaged  in  ascertaining  the  myne  of  a 
plant,  may  be  said  to  be  upon  a  BotanicalJourney,  and  the  plant 
being  his  Directory ;  if  he  can  read  the  botanical  characters 
impressed  on  it  by  the  hand  of  Nature,  he  will,  .by  following 
system,  soon  arrive  at  his  journey's  end."* 

In  the  first  place  we  have  two  comparisons  to  make. 

1st.  Whether  the  Stamens  and  Pistils  are  VISIBLE;  or, 

2nd.  Whether  they  are  INVISIBLE. 

IF  the  Stamens  and  Pistils  are  not  visible,  we  have  already 
arrived  at  the  class  which  is  CRYPTOGAMIA. 

If,  however,  the  Stamens  and  Pistils  are  visible,  we  have 
now  two  comparisons  to  make. 

1st.  Whether  the  Stamens  and  Pistils  are  enclosed  in  the 
same  corolla ;  or, 

2nd.  Whether  the  Stamens  and  Pistils  are  placed  on  differ- 
ent corollas. 

If  the  Stamens  and  Pistils  are  on  different  flowers,  we  then 
shall  find  oupplant  either  in  the  class  Di&cia,  or  Moncecia  ;  ac- 
cording as  the  Stamens  and  Pistils  are  on  different  flowers,  pro- 
ceeding from  the  same  root,  or  from  different  roots. 
*  Thornton. 

The  letters  ch — Meaning  of  the  word  analysis — How  used  in  botany — What 
two  comparisons  to  be  first  made  in  analyzing  a  plant — When  the  stamens  and 
pistils  are  visible. 


METHOD  OF  ANALYSIS.  ,      43 

But  if  our  plant  has  the  Stamens  and  Pistils  both  enclosed  in 
the  same  corolla,  we  must  next  examine, 
i    1st.  Whether  the  Anthers  are  separate,  or, 

2nd.  ^Whether  the  Anthers  are  united. 

If  we  find^rue  anthers  united  around  the  pistil,  we  have  found 
the  class  of  our  plant ;  it  is  SYNGENESIA. 

If  the  Anthers  are  separate,  we  must  proceed  to  a.  fourth  stage, 
and  see, 

1st.  Whether  the  filaments  are  separate,  or, 

2nd.  Whether  the  filaments  are  united  with  each  other,  or, 

3d.  Whether  the  filnments  are  united  to  the  pistil.. 

If  the  latter  circumstance  is  ascertained,  we  need  search  no 
farther  ;  our  plant  is  in  the  class  GYNANDRIA. 

If  the  flower  has  not  the  filamenjs  united  to  the  pistil,  we 
must  ascertain  if  the  filaments  are  united  with  each  other  ;  if 
they  are  so,  and  in  two  parcels  or  sets,  the  flower  is  in  the  class 

DlADELPHIA,  but, 

If  in  one  parcel  or  set,  it  is  in  the  class  MONADELPHIA. 

But  if  the  filaments  are  separate,  we  must  next  examine, 

1st.  iWhetherthese  are  similar  in  length,  or, 

2nd.  Whether  they  are  of  different  lengths. 

(Of  different  lengths,  those  only  which  have  four  or  six  sta- 
mens are  to  be  regarded.)  „ 

If  we  find  our  flower  has  six  stamens, four  long  and  two  short, 
we  need  go  no  farther,  this  is  the  class  TETRADYNAMIA. 

If  the  flower  has  four  stamens,  two  long,  and  two  short,  it  is 
in  the  class  DYDYNAMIA. 

If,  our  flower  comes  under  none  of  the  foregoing  heads,  we 
must  then  count  the  number  of  stamens;  if  these  amount  to 
more  than  ten,  we  must  then  consider  their  insertion,  as, 

1st.  Whether  inserted  on  the  calyx  or  corolla,  or, 

2nd.  Whether  inserted  on  the  Receptacle. 

If  we  find  the  Stamens  inserted  on  the  Receptacle,  the  flow- 
er is  in  the  class  POLYANDRIA  ;  but  if  on  the  Calyx  or  Corolla,  it 
is  in  ICOSANDRIA. 

If  our  flower  has  less  than  twenty  stamens,  with  none  of  the 
peculiarities  above  mentioned,  of  connexion,  position,  or  length, 
we  have  only  to  count  the  number  of  stamens  in  order  to  be 
certain  of  the  class ;  if  there  are  ten  stamens,  it  is  in  DECAN- 
DRIA;  and  so  on  through  the  nine  remaining  classes.  This  is 
the  true  analytical  process ;  but  when  we  put  plants  together  to 

When  the  stamens  and  pistils  are  inclosed  in  the  same  corolla  what  is  next  to 
be  considered — When  the  anthers  are  separate  what  must  be  observed — If  the 
filaments  are  separate  what  must  be  observed  ? — If  the  flower  has  not  stamens 
of  unequal  length,  what  is  to  be  observed  ? — When  is  the  flower  in  one  of  the 
first  ten  classes  ? — Difference  between  analysis  and  synthesis. 


44  GENERAL  FACTS  RELATING  TO  VEGETABLES. 

form  a  species,  and  species  together  to  form  a  genus,  and  gene- 
ra together  to  form  an  order,  and  orders  together  to  form  a  class, 
we  then  proceed  in  the  way  of  Synthesis,  which  means  putting 
v  together. 

General  Facts  Relating  to  Vegetables. 

Plants  are  furnished  with  pores,  by  which  they  imbibe  nour- 
ishment from  surrounding  bodies.  Tin-  part  which  fixes  the 
plant  in  the  earth,  and  absorbs  from  it  the  juices  necessary  to 
vegetation,  is  the  root ;  this  organ  is  never  wanting. 

The  stem  proceeds  from  the  root,  sometimes  it  creeps  upon 
the  earth,  or  remains  concealed  in  its  bosom;  but  generally  the 
stem  ascends  either  by  its  own  strength,  or,  as  in  the  case  of 
vines,  by  supporting  itself  upon  some  other  body.  The  divi- 
sions of  the  stem  are  its  branches ;  the  division  of  the  branches 
are  its  bough*.  When  the  vegetable  has  no  stem,  the  flower 
and  fruit  grow  from  the  tops  of  the  root ;  but  when  the  stem 
exists,  that  or  its  branches  bear  the  leaves,  flowers,  and  fruits. 
Herbs  have  generally  soft,  watery  stems  of  short  duration, 
which  bear  flowers  once,  and  then  die. 

Trees  and  shrubs  have  solid  and  woody  stems ;  they  live  and 
bear  flowers  many  years. 

Small  bodies,  of  a  round  or  conical  form,  consisting  of  thin 
scales,  lying  closely  compacted  together,  appear  every  year 
upon  the  stems,  the  boughs,  and  the  branches  of  trees.  They 
contain  the  germs  of  the  productions  of  the  following  years, 
and  secure  them  from  the  severity  of  the  seasons.  These 
germs,  and  the  scales  which  cover  them,  are  called  buds. 
The  buds  of  the  trees  and  shrubs  of  equinoctial  countries,  have 
few  scales,  as  they  are  less  needed  for  protection  against  in- 
clemencies of  weather. 

-  Leaves  like  flowers  proceed  from  buds;  the  former  are  the 
lungs  of  vegetables ;  they  absorb  water  and  carbonic  acid  from 
the  atmosphere,  decompose  them  by  the  action  of  rays  of  li^ht 
and  exhale  or  give  out  oxygen  gas.  They  are  usually  con- 
nected at  the  base  by  a  kind  of  stem  called  a  pvtiolt •.  and  an? 
sometimes  accompanied  by  stipules,  appendages  similar  to  lit- 
tle leaves. 

Vegetables,  like  animals,  produce  others  of  their  kind,  and 
thus  perpetuate  the  works  of  creation.  The  organs  essential 
to  the  perfection  of  plants,  are  the  stamens  and  pistils.  Those 
plants  in  which  the  stamens  and  pistils  are  manifest,  are  called 
Phenogamous  ;  where  these  are  rather  suspected  than  demon- 
strated to  exist,  they  are  called  Cryptogamous.  The  presence 

The  Root — Stem — Branches — Boughs — Herbs — Trees  and  shrubs — Buds — 
Leaves — Phenogamous  and  Cryptogaraous  plants. 


HERBARIUM.  45 

. 

of  a  stamen  and  pistil  constitutes  a  perfect  flower ;  but  in  gen- 
eral  these  organs  are  surrounded  with  an  envelope  called  the 
corolla,  and  an  outer  one  called  the  calyx.  Persons  ignorant' 
of  botany  give  exclusively  the  name  of  flower  to  these  en- 
velopes,  which  are  often  remarkable  for  the  brilliancy  of  their 
colours,  the  elegance  of  their  forms,  and  the  fragrance  of 
their  perfumes. 

Method  of  preserving  plants,  and  of  preparing  an  herbarium. 
PLANTS  collected  for  analysis,  may  be  preserved  fresh  many  days,  in  a  close 
tfn  box,  by  occasionally  sprinkling  them  with  water;  they  may  also  be  preserv- 
ed by  placing  their  stems  in  WR'  r,  but  not  as  well  by  the  latter,  as  the  former 
method.  While  attending  to  the  science  of  Botany,  you  should  keep  specimens 
of  all  the  plants  you  can  procure.  An  herbarium  neatly  arranged  is  beautiful, 
and  may  be  rendered  highly  useful,  by  affording  an  opportunity  to  compare 
many  species  together,  and  it  likewise  serves  to  fix  in  the  mind  the  characters 
of  plants.  It  is  a  good  method  in  collecting  nlants  for  an  herbarium,  to  have 
a  port-folio,  or  a  book  in  which  they  may  be  placed  before  the  parts  begin  to 
wilt.  Specimens  should  be  placed  between  the  leaves  of  paper,  either  news- 
paper or  any  other  kind  which  is  of  a  loose  texture,  and  will  easily  absorb  the 
moisture  of  the  plants  ;  aboard  with  a  weight  upon  it  should  then  be  placed 
upon  the  paper  containing  them ;  the  plants  should  be  taken  out  frequently  at 
first ;  as  often  as  once  or  twice  a  day  and  the  paper  dried,  or  the  plants  placed 
between  other  dry  leaves.  Small  plants  may  be  dried  between  the  leaves  of  a 
book. 

Plants  differ  in  the  length  of  time  required  for  drying  as  they  are  more  or  less 
juicy  ;  some  dry  in  a  few  days,  others  not  sooner  than  two  or  three  weeks. 
When  the  specimens  are  dry  and  a  sufficient  number  collected  to  commence 
an  herbarium,  a  book  should  be  procured,  composed  of  blank  paper,  (white  pa- 
per gives  the  plants  a  more  showy  appearance.)  A  quarto  size  is  more  con- 
venient than  a  larger  one ;  upon  the  first  page  of  each  leaf  should  be  fastened 
one  or  more  of  the  dried  specimens,  either  with  glue  or  by  means  of  cutting 
through  the  paper,  and  raising  up  loops  under  which  the  stems  may  be  placed. 
By  the  sides  of  the  plants  should  be  written  the  class,  order,  generic,  and  spe~ 
cijic  name ;  also,  the  place  where  found,  and  the  season  of  the  year.  The  col- 
ours of  plants  frequently  change  in  drying :  the  blue,  pale  red,  and  white,  often 
turn  black,  or  lose  their  colour ;  yellow,  scarlet,  violet  and  green,  are  more  du- 
rable. An  herbarium  should  be  carefully  guarded  against  moisture  and  insects  ; 
as  a  security  against  the  latter,  the  plants  may  be  brushed  over  with  cor- 
rosive-sublimate. 

As  a  healthful  and  agreeable  exercise,  we  would  recommend  frequent  botanical 
excursions ;  you  will  experience  more  pleasure  from  the  science,  by  seeing  the 
flowers  in  their  own  homes  :  a  dry  groveof  woods,  the  borders  of  little  streams, 
the  meadows,  the  pastures,  and  even  the  way-sides  will  -afford  you  constant 
subjects  for  botanical  observations.  To  the  hardier  sex,  who  can  climb  moun- 
tains, and  penetrate  marshes,  many  strange  and  interesting  plants  will  prpsent 
themselves,  which  cannot  be  found  except  in  their  peculiar  situations  ;  of  these 
you  must  be  content  to  obtain  specimens,  without  seeing  them  in  their  native 
wilds  You  will  no  doubt  easily  obtain  such  specimens,  for  there  is,  usually, 
among  the  cultivators  of  natural  science,  a  generosity  in  affording  assistance 
to  others,  arid  imparting  the  treasures  which  nature  lavishes  upon  those  who 
have  a  taste  to  enjoy  them. 

Poisonous  Plants  and  those  which  are  not  poisonous.   ' 

Tn  collecting  flowers,  you  should  be  cautious  with  respect  to  poisonous  plants. 
Suchas  have  five  stamens  and  one  pistil,  with  a  corolla  of  adull,  lurid  colour,  and 
a  disagreeable  smell,  are  usually  poisonous  ;  the  Thorn  apple  (stramonium)  and 

Method  of  preserving  plants,  and  of  preparing  an  herbarium — Botanical  ex- 
cursions— Poisonous  plants. 


46  GENERAL  REMARKS. 

the  Tobacco  are  examples.  The  Umbelliferous  plants,  which  grow  in  wet  pla- 
ces, have  usually  a  nauseous  smell :  such  plants  are  poisonous,  as  the  Water 
hemlock.  Umbelliferous  plants  which  grow  in  dry  places,  usually  have  an 
aromatic  smell,  and  are  not  poisonous,  as  Caraway  and  Fennel 

Plants  with  Labiate  corollas,  and  containing  their  seeds  in  capsules,  arc  often 
poisonous,  as  the  Foxglove ;  (Digitalis ;)  also,  such  as  contain  a  milky  juia ,  un- 
less they  are  compound  flowers.  Such  plants  as  have  homed  or  hooded  nec- 
taries, as  the  Columbine  and  Monk's-hood,  are  mostly  poisonous. 

Among  plant*  which  are  seldom  poisonous,  are  the  compound  flowers,  as 
the  Dandelion  and  Boneset;  such  as  have  labiate  corollas,  \\iih  seeds  lying  na- 
ked in  the  calyx,  are  said,  never  to  be  poisonous ;  the  Mint  and  Thyme  are  ex- 
amples of  such  plants.  The  Papilionaceous  flowers,  as  the  pea  and  bean  ?  the 
Cruciform,  as  the  radish  and  mustard,  are  seldom  found  to  be  poisonous.  Such 
plants  as  have  their  stamens  standing  on  the  calyx,  as  the  Rose  and  applo,  are 
never  poisonous ;  neither  the  grass-like  plants  with  glume  calyxes,  aa  Wheat, 
Rye,  and  Orchard  grass,  (Dactylis.) 

Proper  Flowers  for  Analysis. 

In  selecting  flowers  for  analysis,  you  musljiever  take  double  ones;  the  ?ta- 
raens  (and  in  many  cases  the  pistils  also)  change  to  petals  by  cultivation,  there- 
fore you  cannot  know  by  adouble  flower,  how  many  stamens  or  pistils  belong 
to  it  in  its  natural  state.  Botanists  M-.-IU  to  view  n.s  a  kind  of  sacrilege,  the 
changes,  made  by  culture,  in  the  natural  characters  of  plants  ;  they  call  the 
double  flowers,  and  the  variegated  ones,  produced  by  a  mixture  of  different 
species,  monsters  and  deformities.  These  are  harsh  expressions  to  be  applied 
to  Roses  and  Carnations,  which  our  taste  must  lead  us  to  admire,  as  intrinsical- 
ly beautiful,  although  their  relative  beauty,  as  subservient  to  scientific  illu>t  ra- 
tion, is  certainly  destroyed  by  the  labour  of  the  florist.  The  love  of  native 
wild  Howrrs  is  no  doubt  greatly  heigtened  by  the  habit  of  seeking  them  out, 
and  observing  them  in  their  peculiar  situations ;  a  Botanist  at  the  discovery  of 
some  lowly  plant,  growing  by  the  side  of  a  brook,  or  almost  concealed  in  the 
cleft  of  a  rock,  will  often  experience  a  more  vivid  delight  than  could  be  produ- 
ced by  a  view  of  the  most  splendid  exotic.  Botanical  pursuits  render  us  inter- 
ested in  every  vegetable  production  ;  even  such  as  we  before  looked  upon  as 
useless,  present  attractions,  as  objects  of  scientific  investigation,  and  become 
associated  with  the  pleasing  recollections,  arising  from  the  gratification  of  our 
love  of  knowledge.  A  peculiar  interest  is  given  to  conversation  by  an  ac- 
quaintance with  any  of  the  natural  sciences  ;  and  when  females  shall  have 
more  generally  obtained  access  to  these  delightful  sources  of  pure  enjoyment, 
we  may  hope  that  scandal,  which  oftener  proceeds  from  a  want  of  better  subjects 
than  malevolence  .of  disposition,  shall  cease  to  be  regarded  as  a  charaeteristic 
of  our  sex.  It  is  important  to  the  cause  of  science,  that  it  should  become./^A- 
ivnuhle;  and  as  one  means  of  affecting  this,  the  parlours  of  those  ladies,  who 
have  advantages  for  intellectual  improvement,  should  more  frequently  exhibit 
spei-imens  of  their  own  scientific  taste.  All  the  fashionable*/  iv/miNot' 
books,  engravings  and  albums,  do  not  reflect  upon  their  possessors  any  ::r.  .u 
degree  of  credit  To  paste  pictures,  or  pieces  of  prose  or  poetry,  into  a  book  ; 
or  to  collect  in  an  album  the  wit  and  good  sense  of  others,  are  not  proofs  <>f 
one's  own  acquirements ;  and  the  possession  of  elegant  and  curious  enirravintrs, 
indicates  a  full  purse,  rather  than  a  well  stored  mind  ;  but  fctfffamMtt  and  books 
of  inijH, -xsiniimi/ , -Aunti*,*  drawings  &c.  show  the  taste,  and  knowledge  of  those 
who  execute  them. 

*  MANNER  OF    TAKING    IMPRESSIONS   OF   LEAVES. — Hold   Oiled    paper    OVCr 

the  smoke  of  a  lamp  until  it  becomes  darkened ;  to  this  paper,  apply  the  leaf, 
having  previously  warmed  it  between  the  hands,  that  it  may  be  pliant.  Place 
the  lower  surface  of  the  leaf  upon  the  blackened  paper,  that  the  numerous 
veins  which  run  through  its  extent,  and  which  are  so  prominent  on  this  side, 
may  receive  from  the  paper,  a  portion  of  the  smoke.  Press  the  leaf  upon  the 

Plants  seldom  poisonous — Double  flowers  not  proper  for  analysis — Effect  of 
Botanical  pursuits — Of  an  acquaintance  with  any  of  the  natural  sciences. 


GENERAL  REMARKS.  47 

It  is  unfortunately  too  much  the  case,  that  female  ingenuity,  (especially  in  the 
case  of  young  ladies  after  leaving  school)  is  in  a  great  degree,  directed  to  trivi- 
al objects,  which  have  no  reference  either  to  utility,  or  to  moral  and  intellec- 
tual improvement.  But  a  taste  for  scientific  pursuits  once  acquired,  a  lady 
will  feel  that  she  has  no  time  for  engagements,  which  neither  tend  to  the  good 
of  others,  or  to  make  herself  wiser  or  better. 

paper,  by  placing  upon  it^some  thin  paper  and  rubbing  the  fingers  gently  over 
it,  so  that  every  part  of  the  leaf  may  come  in  contact  with  the  sooted  oil  paper. 
Then  remove  the  leaf,  and  place  the  sooted  side  upon  clean  white  paper,  press- 


ing it  gently  as  before  ;  upon  removing  the  leaf,  the  paper  will  present  a  deli- 
cate and  perfect  outline,  together  with  an  accurate  exhibition  of  the  veins 
which  extend  in  every  direction  through  it,  more  correct  and  beautiful  than  the 
finest  drawing. 

Female  ingenuity  too  often  directed  to  trivial  objects. 


PART  II. 


LECTURE    VII. 

Importance  of  observing  external  objects. — Vegetables  consist  of 
two  sets  of  organs. — Of  the  root. — The  stem. 

THE  exercises  which  constitute  the  principal  part  of  our  pre- 
vious course  of  lectures,  are  chiefly  designed  to  assist  you  in 
practical  botany.  It  is  not  expected  that  you  are  to  be  the  . 
passive  receivers  of  instruction,  but  that  you  are  to  compare 
with  real  objects,  the  descriptions  which  are  presented ;  by  do- 
ing this  faithfully,  you  will  find  your  minds  gradually  strength, 
ened,  and  more  competent  to  compare  and  judge  in  abstract 
studies,  where  the  subjects  of  investigation  are  in  the  mind  on- 
ly, and  cannot,  like  the  plants,  be  looked  at  with  the  eyes  and 
handled  with  the  hands. 

All  our  thoughts,  by  means  of  the  senses,  are  originally  de- 
rived from  external  objects.  Suppose  an  infant  to  exist  who 
could  neither  hear,  see,  taste,  smell,  nor  feel ;  all  the  embryos 
of  thought  and  emotion  might  exist  within  it;  it  might  have  a 
soul  capable  of  as  high  attainments  as  are  within  the  reach  of 
any  created  beings;  but  this  soul,  while  thus  imprisoned,  could 
gather  rio  ideas;  the  beauty  of  re  fleeted  light,  constituting  all  the 
variety  of  colouring ;  the  harmony  of  sounds,  the  fragrant  odors 
of  flowers,  the  various  flavors,  which  are  derived  from  our 
sense  of  taste,  the  ideas  of  soft,  smooth,  or  hard ;  all  these  ideas 
must  forever  remain  unknown  to  the  soul  confined  to  a  body 
having  no  means  of  communication  with  the  world  around  it. 
The  soul,  in  its  relation  to  external  objects,  may  be  compared 
to  the  embryo  plant,  which,  imprisoned  within  the  seed,  would 
forever  remain  inert,  were  no  means  provided  for  its  escape 
from  this  confinement,  and  no  communication  opened  between  it 
and  the  air,  the  light,  and  vivifying  influence  of  the  earth. 

Since  our  first  ideas  are  derived  from  external  nature  is  it 
not  a  rational  conclusion  that  we  should  add  to  this  original 

Study  of  external  objects  strengthens  the  mind — Abstract  studies  facilitated 
by  acquaintance  with  the  natural  sciences — Our  first  ideas  gained  by  the  senses 
—Analogy  between  the  soul  and  the  embryo  plant. 


ORGANS  OF  PLANTS. 


49 


stock  of  knowledge,  by  a  continued  observation  of  objects  ad- 
dressed  to  our  senses?  After  the  years  of  infancy  are  past,  and 
we  begin  to  study  books,  should  we,  neglecting  sensible  objects, 
seek  only  to  gain  ideas  from  the  learned ;  or  in  other  words, 
shall  we  in  the  pursuit  of  human  sciences,  overlook  the  works 
of  God? 

Having  now  enabled  you  to  understand  the  method  of  analy- 
sing plants,  we  shall  proceed  to  consider  more  fully  the  different 
organs  of  plants,  with  the  uses  of  each,  in  the  vegetable  econ- 
omy. 

In  plants,  as  well  as  animals,  each  part  or  organ,  is  intimate- 
ly connected  with  the  whole ;  and  the  vegetable,  as  well  as  the 
animal  being  depends  for  its  existence  on  certain  laws  of  or- 
ganization. 

We  shall  consider  the  vegetable  organs  under  two  classes ; 
the  first  including  such  organs  as  promote  the  growth  of  the 
plant ;  the  second  such  as  perfect  the  seed,  and  thus  provide  for 
the  reproduction  of  the  species. 

1st.  The  Root,  or  descending  part. 

2nd.  The  Stem,  which  elevates  and  sustains  the 

branches. 

3d.  The  Leaves,  which  are  the  lungs  of  plants, 
inhaling  nutritious  gases,  and  exhaling  such  as 
are  not  needed  for  the  growth  of  the  plant. 
4th.  The  appendages,  as  leafets,  tendrils,  thorns, 
&c. 

1st.  The  Calyx,  or  outer  part  of  the  flower. 

2d.  The  Corolla,  or  coloured  blossoms  within  the 
Calyx,  or  enclosing  the  stamens. 

3d.  The  Stamens,  organs  surrounding  the  cen- 
tral one. 

4th.  The  Pistil,  central  organ. 

5th.  The  Pericarp,  covering  the  seed. 

6th.  The  Seed,  the  essential  part  ,which  contains 
the  rudiments  of  a  new  plant. 

7th.  The  Receptacle,  or  base  of  the  flower,  being 

the  end  of  the  flower  stem. 
The  parts  above  enumerated  consist  of  subdivisions,  as  may 
be  seen  in  the  following  table. 

We  should  not  confine  our  attention  exclusively  to  books — Vegetable  as  well 
as  animal  existence  depends  on  certain  laws  of  organization— Two  kinds  of  or- 
gans of  vegetables— The  first  set  of  organs — The  second  set. 

5 


Organs  which 
promote  the 
growth  of  the 
plant. 


Organs  which 
perfect  the 
seed. 


50 


SYNOPSIS  OF  ORGANS  OF  PLANTS. 


THE  BOOT.               $  CaU*ef> 

1  radicles, 

t  branches, 

THE  STEM.           1  petioles, 

(  peduncles, 

Organs  of  nu- 

THE BUD.            )  scales, 

trition^  parts 

s 

necessary  to     < 
the  growth  of 

THE  LEAF.           5  leafets, 

the  plant. 

stipules, 

prickles, 

thorns, 

glands, 

APPENDAGES.             \  ""*»' 

scales, 

tendrils, 

pubescence, 

.  bracts. 

CALYX       divisions  are  called  leaves. 

COROLLA   divisions  are  called  petals. 

C  sometimes  apart  of  tte  corolla, 

Organs  of  re- 

NECTARY   < 
f  sometimes  a  separate  organ. 

production,  or 
parts   of  fruc- 
tification. 

THE    FLOWER. 

^tes.<f*i 

1 

£  f/igma, 

[ 

PISTIL     <  %Ze, 
(  ovary  or  germ.  {  ™ules. 
Containing  oil  parts 

oj  the  fruit  which 

are  not  the  seed, 

• 

PERICARP  <  cells, 

valves, 

- 

THE    FRUIT. 

dissepiments, 
.  columella. 

(hilum, 

albumen, 

cotyledons, 

embryo.  —  ^  radicle. 

- 

\  plume. 

Parts  of  the  root— Of  the  stem— Of  the  bud— Of  the  leaf— Appendages— 
Parts  of  the  calyx— Of  the  corolla— What  is  the  nectary  ?— Parts  of  the  stamen 
—Of  the  pistil— What  is  the  pericarp  ?— Parts  of  the  pericarp— Parts  of  the 
«eed— Parts  of  the  embryo. 


OF  THE  ROOT.  51 

Of  the  Root. 

The  root  (radix)  is  that  part  of  the  vegetable  which  enters 
the  earth,  and  extends  in  a  direction  contrary  to  the  growth 
of  the  stem ;  it  supports  the  plant  in  an  upright  position,  and  at 
the  same  time  gives  nourishment  to  every  part  of  it.  There 
are  exceptions  to  the  general  fact,  of  a  root  being  fixed  in  the 
ground ;  some  plants,  as  the  pond-lily,  grow  in  water,  and  are 
called  aquatic,  (from  aqua,  water,)  some,  like  the  misletoe,  have 
no  root,  but  fix  themselves  upon  other  plants,  and  derive  suste- 
nance from  them ;  such  are  called  parasites.* 

The  Root  consists  of  two  parts,  the  Caudex,  or  main  body  of 
the  root,  and  the  Radicle,  or  fibres;  these  are  a  kind  of  capilla- 
ry or  hair-like  tubes,  which  absorb  the  nourishment  that  is  con- 
veyed to  other  parts  of  the  plant.  This  nourishment  ascend- 
ing by  the  action  of  the  air,  experiences  in  the  leaves  and  green 
parts  of  the  plant,  an  important  change ;  and  a  part  of  it, 
through  a  different  set  of  vessels,  flows  back,  in  what  is  called 
the  returning  sap  or  cambium. 

Between  the  Caudex  and  stem  is  a  point,  sometimes  called  the 
rootstock  which  is  considered  as  of  peculiar  importance;  any  in- 
jury to  this  part  being  followed  by  the  death  of  the  plant. 
Duration  of  Roots. 

Roots  with  respect  to  duration  are,  annual,  biennial  or  peren- 
nial. 

Annual  roots — are  such  as  live  but  one  year.  They  come 
from  the  seed  in  the  spring,  and  die  in  autumn,  including  such 
as  are  raised  from  the  seed  every  year :  as  peas,  beans,  cucum- 
bers, &c. 

Biennial  roots — are  such  as  live  two  years.  They  do  not 
produce  any  flowers  the  first  season,  the  next  summer  they  blos- 
som, the  seeds  mature,  and  the  roots  die.  The  roots  of  cabbages 
are  often,  after  the  first  season,  preserved  in  cellars  during  the 
winter.  In  the  spring  they  are  set  out  in  gardens,  and  produce 
flowers ;  the  petals  of  which,  in  time,  fall  off,  and  the  germ 
grows  into  a  pod  or  silique,  which  contains  the  seed.  The  root 
having  performed  this  office,  then  dies,  and  no  process  can  re- 
store it  to  life ;  the  flowering  is  thought  to  exhaust  the  vital  en- 
ergy or  living  principle.  The  onion,  beet  and  carrot  are  bien- 
nial plants. 

*  The  \vordparasite,  from  the  Greek  para,  with,  and  sitos,  com,  was  first  ap- 
plied to  those  who  had  the  care  of  the  corn  used  in  religious  ceremonies,  and 
were  allowed  a  share  of  the  sacrifice  ;  afterwards  it  was  applied  to  those  who 
depended  on  the  great,  and  earned  their  welcome  by  flattery  ;  by  analogy,  the 
term  is  now  applied  to  plants  which  live  upon  others. 

Definition  of  the  root — Aquatic  roots — Parasites— Division  of  the  root — An- 
nual roots— Biennial. 


52  OF  THE  ROOT. 

Perennial  roots — are  those  whose  existence  is  prolonged  a 
number  of  years  to  an  indefinite  period ;  as  the  asparagus,  ge- 
ranium, and  rose ;  also  trees  and  shrubs.  Climate  and  cultiva- 
tion affect  the  duration  of  the  roots  of  vegetables.  Many  pe- 
rennial plants  become  annual  by  transplanting  them  into  cold 
climates:  the  garden  nasturtion,  originally  a  perennial  shrub 
in  South  America,has  become  in  our  latitude  an  annual  plant. 

Botanists  express  the  duration  of  vegetables  by  the  use  of 
astronomical  signs ;  the  annual  plants  are  designated  thus  $&,  de- 
noting one  revolution  of  the  earth  around  the  sun. 

The  biennials  are  represented  by  $,  the  planet  mars,  which 
makes  its  revolution  in  two  years. 

The  perennials  are  represented  by  If,  the  planet  Jupiter, 
which  makes  its  revolution  in  many  years. 

The  character  *? ,  the  sign  of  the  planet  Saturn,  is  used  to 
designate  woody  plants  which  usually  live  many  years. 

It  is  said,  that  great  care  in  the  culture  may  prolong  the 
life  of  annual  plants  beyond  what  appears  to  be  their  natural 
term  of  existence. 

Forms  of  Roots. 

There  are  seven  varieties  in  the  forms  of  roots ;  branching, 
fibrous,  spindle,  creeping,  granulated,  bulbous. 
Fig.  12. 

1st.  Branching  Root, 
(Radix  ramosa.)  (Fig.  12.) 
This  is  the  most  common 
kind ;  it  consists  of  numer- 
ous ramifications,  resem- 
bling in  appearance  the 
branches  of  a  tree ;  some  of 
these  branches  penetrate  to 
a  great  depth  in  the  earth, 
and  others  creep  almost  hor- 
izontally near  its  surface. 
Experiments  have  been  made,  which  show,  that  branches  by 
being  buried  in  the  soil  may  become  roots ;  and  roots,  by  being 
elevated  in  the  atmosphere,  become  branches  covered  with 
foliage.  We  often  see  the  roots  of  trees,  which  have  been 
blown  down,  throwing  out  leaves. 

Branching  roots  terminate  in  fibres  or  radicles,  which  are  in 
reality  the  proper  roots ;  as  they  imbibe  through  pores,  the 
nourishment  which  the  plant  derives  from  the  earth.  Nature 


Perennial  roots— Classification  of  roots  as  founded  upon  their  forms — Branch- 
ing root. 


OF  THE  ROOT.  53 

furnishes  this  nourishment  in  the  moisture,  and  various  salts 

which  are  contained  in  the  soil. 
Fig.  13. 

2d.  Fibrous  Root,  (Radix Jtbrosa.)  (Fig. 
13.)  This  consists  of  a  collection  of  thread- 
like parts ;  as  in  many  kinds  of  grasses, 
and  most  annual  plants.  The  fibres  usual- 
ly grow  directly  from  the  bottom  of  the 
stem,  as  may  easily  be  seen  by  pulling  up 
a  handful  of  the  most  common  grass. 


Fig.  14.  3d.  Spindle  root  (Radix  fusiformis.\  (Fig.  14.) 

This  is  large  at  the  top,  and  tapering  downwards  ; 
as  beets;  carrots,  radishes,  and  many  of  the  bien- 
nial  plants.  This  root  is  not  well  provided  with 
the  means  of  imbibing  sustenance,  on  account  of 
a  deficiency  of  radicles ;  it  is  sometimes  furnished 
with  no  more  than  one.  That  these  radicles  are 
the  agents,  by  which  the  root  is  nourished,  may 
be  seen  by  immersing  a  young  radish  in  water  un- 
til every  part  is  covered  except  the  radicles ;  the 
herbage  will  soon  die ;  but  if  the  radicles  of  an- 
other radish  are  immersed  in  water,  the  plant  will 
live  and  look  fresh  for  some  time.  The  spindle 
root  is  often/brM  as  in  the  mandrake,*  the  divi- 
sions of  which  are  thought  to  resemble  the  lower 
part  of  the  human  figure.  Sometimes  the  spindle 
root  instead  of  termimating  in  a  point,  appears  as 
if  the  end  had  been  cut  or  bitten  off;  this  is  called 
an  abrupt  root,  or  more  scientifically,  premorse, 
(See  Fig.  15.)  which  Fig.  15. 

signifies  bitten.  The  vi- 
olet and  cowslip  furnish 
examples  of  this  kind  of  root.  A  for- 
eign plant  called  the  Devil's  bit,f  re- 
ceived the  name  on  account  of  its  ab- 
rupt root;  it  having  been  superstitiously 
believed  in  former  times,  that  as  the 

plant  was  useful  for  medicine,'the  devil  *"  /?  C '  7  1\       \ 

had,  out  of  spite  to  mankind,  bitten  off 
the  root. 

*  Atropa  Mandragora.    The  word  mandrake  is  said  to  be  derived  from  the 
German  Mandragen,  resembling  man. 
t  SCABIOSA  succisa  or  a  kind  of  Scabious 


Fibrous  root— Spindle  root— Importance  of  radicles— Forked  spindle  root— 
Premorse  root.  5* 


54 


OF  THE  ROOT. 


Fig.  16. 


4th.  Creepwg 
root  (Radix  re- 
pens.)  (Fig.  16.) 
This  root,  instead 
of  forcing  its  way 
perpendicularly  in- 
to the  earth,  ex- 
tends horizontally, 
and  sends  out  fi- 
bres. It  is  very  tenacious  of  life,  as  any  part  of  it  containing 
a  joint  will  grow.  This  root  is  sometimes  useful,  by  its  fibres 
spreading  and  interlacing  themselves,  and  thus  rendering  a  soil 
more  permanent.  Holland  would  be  liable  to  be  washed  away 
by  the  action  of  water  were  it  not  that  its  coasts  are  bound 
together  by  these  and  other  plants.  This  root  will  grow  in 
sandy,  light  soils,  wliich  scarcely  produce  any  other  vegetation. 

5th.  Gran- 
ulated root 
(Radix gra- 
,nulata.)(¥. 
,17.)  This 
consists,  of 
little  bulbs 

or  tubers,  strung  together  by  a  thread-like  radicle ;  this  form 
approaches  to  that  of  some  varieties  of  the  tuberous. 


Fig.  18. 


6th.  Tuberous  root 
Radix  tuberosa.) 

^ig.  18.)  This  kind 
of  root  is  hard,  solid, 
and  fleshy;  it  con- 
sists of  one  knob  or 
tuber  ;  as  in  the  po- 
tatoe,a;  or  of  many 
such  connected  by 
means  of  a  number 
of  strings  or  fila- 
ments, as  in  the  arti. 
choke,*.  These  tu- 
bers are  reservoirs 
of  moisture,  nourish. 
ment  and  vital  en- 
ergy. The  potatoe 
is  in  reality,  but  an 
excrescence,  pro- 
ceeding from  the 


Creeping  root—Its  importance  in  Holland—  Granulated  root—  Tuberous  root. 


OF  THE  ROOT.  55 

real  root ;  and  it  is  a  singular  fact  that  this  nutricious  substance 
is  the  product  of  a  plant  whose  fruit  (often  termed  potatoe  balls) 
is  poisonous.  The  root  of  some  of  the  orchis  plants  consists  of 
two  tubers,  resembling  the  two  lobes  into  which  a  bean  may 
be  divided,  c.  Tuberous  roots  are  knobbed  as  in  the  potatoe ; 
oval,  as  in  the  orchis ;  abrupt,  as  in  the  plantain ;  fasciculated, 
when  several  are  bundled  together,  as  in  the  asparagus,  and 
several  species  of  orchis. 

7th.  Bulbous  root  (Radix  bulbosa.)  (Fig.  19.)  A  fleshy 
root  of  a  bulbous  or  globular  form.  It  seems  like  a  large  ball 
placed  under  ground,  to  enclose  and  protect  the  future  plant. 
Bulbous  plants  belong  chiefly  to  the  great  division  of  Monocoty- 
ledons, or  those  whose  seeds  have  but  one  cotyledon ;  they  pro- 
duce some  of  the  earliest  flowers  of  spring,  and  afford  some  of 
the  most  beautiful  ornaments  of  the  garden.  Among  them  are 
the  Hyacinth,  the  Crown  Imperial,  the  Lily,  and  the  Tulip, 
with  a  great  variety  of  other  splendid  and  interesting  flowers. 
The  use  of  the  bulb  being  to  preserve  the  future  plant  from 
the  effect  of  cold,  we  see  the  bountiful  agency  of  Providence 
in  the  greater  number  of  bulbous  plants  in  cold  countries. 

Bulbs  seem  to  be  analogous  to  the  buds  of  trees,  and  in  some 
plants  they  grow  like  buds  upon  the  stems  or  branches ;  as  in 
one  species  of  lily  and  the  magical  onion ;  in  the  latter  of  which 
the  bulbs  or  onions  grow  upon  the  stalk  in  clusters  of  four  or 
five ;  they  continue  to  enlarge,  until  their  weight  brings  them 
to  the  ground ;  here,  if  not  prevented,  they  take  root.  This  is 
a  viviparous  plant,  or  one  which  produces  its  offspring  alive  ; 
such  plants  as  produce  seeds,  or  such  animals  as  produce  their 
offspring  from  eggs,  are  called  oviparous.  Bulbs  are  solid,  as 
in  the  turnip  (Fig.  19,  a),  scaly,  as  in  the  lily  (b),  and  tunicated 
or  coated  (c),  as  in  the  onion. 

Fig.  19. 


Tubers,  as  the  potatoe,  not  the  real  root— Different  forms  of  tuberous  roots — 
Bulbous  root— Use  of  the  bulb  -Analogous  to  buds — Viviparous  and  oviparous 
plants  -Different  forms  of  bulbous  root*— Difference  in  the  production  of  plants 
by  means  of  bulbs  and  seeds. 


5(5 .  OF  THE  ROOT. 

The  limits  between  a  bulbous  and  tuberous  root  are  not  easily 
defined ;  the  solid  bulb  seems  to  partake  of  the  nature  of  both. 

Bulbs  usually  die  after  the  blossoming  of  the  plant ;  "but  new 
bulbs  are  often  formed  from  the  base  or  sides  of  the  original 
bulb,  which  in  their  turn  produce  plants.  This  is  the  fact  with 
respect  to  the  orchis  tribe  ;  in  which  every  year  one  bulb  or 
tuber  dies,  and  the  other  throws  out  a  new  stem;  by  this  means 
it  changes  its  position,  though  very  slowly,  since  it  takes  but 
one  very  short  step  each  year.  The  production  by  means  of 
bulbs,  is  only  a  continuation  of  the  old  plant,  while  by  means  of 
the  seed  a  new  plant  is  brought  forth. 

This  is  an  important  distinction ;  and  it  is  observed  that  in 
process  of  time,  a  plant  continued  by  means  of  reproduction, 
whether  by  bulbs,  grafting,  or  any  other  manner,  ultimately 
dwindles  and  degenerates  as  if  worn  out  with  old  age,  and  it 
becomes  necessary  to  renew  its  vigour  by  producing  a  young 
plant  from  the  seed.  This  is  the  case  with  the  potatoe,  which 
is  ordinarily  produced  from  the  root ;  but  the  farmer  often 
finds  his  stock  de'generated,  and  is  obliged  to  provide  himself 
with  new  roots  produced  from  the  seed. 

The  specific  character  of  plants  is  sometimes  taken  from  the 
root,  and  in  some  cases  the  specific  name ;  as  SOLA.NUM  tubero- 
sum,  the  potatoe,  and  RANUNCULUS  bulbosus,  the  bulbous  ra- 
nunculus. The  tuberous  and  bulbous  roots  distinguish  those 
species  from  all  others  of  the  families  Solanum,  and  Ranun- 
culus. •  q 

The  forms  of  roots  are  so  various,  that  it  is  impossible  to  give 
names  to  all ;  even  in  the  same  species  of  plants,  the  root  pre- 
sents many  varieties  of  form.  In  the  potatoe,  for  example,  wo 
see  some  roots  round,  and  of  an  even  surface,  others,  long  or 
oval,  and  some  very  knobbed  and  irregular ;  but  yet  amidst  all 
this  variety  there  is  a  prevailing  uniformity,  and  we  can  usually 
at  one  glance  distinguish  a  potatoe,  by  its  form,  from  all  other 
vegetables.  It  might,  at  first,  have  appeared  as  if  there  could 
be  little  interesting  in  the  consideration  of  roots,  which  are  des- 
titute of  that  symmetry  of  parts  and  liveliness  of  colouring, 
which  is  exhibited  in  other  organs  of  the  plant.  We  find,  on 
casting  a  rapid  glance  over  the  face  of  the  earth,  that  all  this 
variety  in  the  form  of  roots  is  not  without  its  peculiar  use. 
Mountains  being  exposed  to  winds,  we  find  them  covered  with 
plants  which  have  branching  roots  with  strong  and  woody 
fibres.  These,  fastening  themselves  into  the  clefts  of  rocks, 

Difference  between  the  continuation  of  plants  by  bulbs,  &c.  and  by  raising 
from  the  seed— Specific  character  and  name  taken  from  the  roots— Roots  of  the 
same  species  sometimes  vary  in  form—  Utility  in  the  variety  of  form  in  roots. 


OF  THE  ROOT.  57 

take  firm  hold,  and  the  trees  they  support  seem,  undauntedly, 
to  brave  the  violence  of  storms  and  tempests.  Spindle  roots 
abound  in  rich,  soft  grounds,  which  they  can  easily  penetrate. 
Damp  and  loose  soils  are  rendered  fit  for  the  use  of  man,  by 
being  bound  together  by  creeping  and  fibrous  roots.  We  find 
here,  as  in  every  part  of  nature,  proofs  of  a  wise  Creator,  who 
makes  nought, 

"  In  vain,  or  not  for  admirable  ends."  , 

We  have  now  described  those  roots  which  grow  by  being 
fixed  in  the  earth.  But  besides  these,  there  are  plants  which 
are  not  fixed,  but  float  about  in  the  water ;  some  grow  upon 
other  plants,  and  some  seem  to  derive  sustenance  from  air  alone. 

Of  the  first  kind,  or  aquatic  roots,  is  the  Lemna  or  duckmeat, 
which  grows  in  stagnant  water,  having  thread-like  roots,  not 
confined  to  any  fixed  place.  The  water-star  grass,*  previous 
to  its  blossoming,  floats  about,  and  is  nourished  by  its  suspended 
fibres  ;  after  flowering,  it  sinks  to  the  bottom,  its  roots  become 
fixed  and  its  seeds  ripen.  These  seeds  germinating,  a  new  race 
of  plants  appear,  which  rise  to  the  surface  of  the  water,  blossom 
and  sink  to  the  earth,  producing  in  turn  their  successors.  Some 
of  the  Cryptogamous  plants,  particularly  of  the  genus  Fucus, 
exist  in  a  wandering  manner,  often  forming  islands  of  conside- 
rable size.  In  the  Gulf  of  Florida,  the  Fucus  natans  is  very 
abundant ;  this,  by  voyagers,  is  often  called  gulf- weed,  and  is 
sometimes  found  in  masses  extending  many  miles,  and, 

"  Sailing  on  ocean's  foam, 

Wher'er  the  surge  may  sweep,  the  tempest's  breath  prevail." 

How  strikingly  analagous  this  poor  weed  to  many  a  human 
being,  blown  about  on  the  ocean  of  life,  by  every  breath  of 
passion  or  caprice !  Who  would  not  rather,  like  the  mountain 
oak,  meet  the  storms  of  life  firmly  rooted  in  virtuous  principles, 
than  to  be  floated  along  even  by  the  breath  of  pleasure,  without 
end  or  aim,  forgetful  of  the  past  and  careless  of  the  future  ? 
To  the  virtuous,  afflictions  serve  but  to  strengthen  them  in 
goodness;  so, 

"  Yonder  oaks  !  superior  to  the  power 

Of  all  the  warring  winds  of  heaven  do  rise, 

And  from  the  stormy  promontory  tower; 

While  each  assailing  blast  increase  of  strength  supplies." 

We  find  roots  which  grow  on  other  plants,  appearing  to  de- 
rive sustenance  from  their  juices.  These  are  called  parasites ; 
this  term  is  often  applied  to  persons  who  are  willing  to  live  in 
dependence  upon  others ;  and  so  despicable  does  this  trait  of 
character  appear,  that  we  almost  conceive  it  a  kind  of  mean- 

*  Callitriche  aquatica. 
Aquatic  roots — Parasitic  plants. 


58  STEMS  AND  STALKS. 

ness,  even  for  a  plant  to  live  without  elaborating  its  own  food. 

Parasitic  plants  are  common  in  tropical  regions  ;  sometimes 
many  kinds  are  found  upon  the  same  tree,  presenting  a  curious 
variety  of  foliage.  In  our  climate,  except  in  the  Cryptoga- 
mous  family,  as  lichens,  mosses,  &c.  we  have  but  few  genera 
of  these  plants.*  The  Dodder  and  Misletoe  are  celebrated 
parasitic  plants. 

Some  plants  grow  without  roots;  these  are  called  air  plants  : 
they  are  furnished  with  leaves  or  stems  which  seem  to  inhale, 
but  not  to  exhale  fluids  ;  their  substance  is  usually  fleshy  and 
juicy ;  some  of  them  flourish  in  the  most  dry  and  sandy  places, 
exposed  to  a  burning  sun ;  as  the  Stapelia,  sometimes  called 
the  vegetable  camel.  The  Epedendrum  grows  and  blossoms  for 
years,  suspended  from  the  ceiling  of  a  room  and  nourished  only 
by  air. 

Many  roots,  as  the  rhubarb,  wild-turnip,  blood-root,  &c. 
possess  important  medicinal  properties.  The  growth  of  the 
root  is  most  rapid  in  autumn ;  at  this  season,  the  sun  being  less 
powerful  and  the  air  more  charged  with  moisture,  the  juices 
condense  in  the  lower  part  of  the  plant,  and  nourish  it,  but  as 
the  season  becomes  cold,  vegetation  is  checked ;  the  winter  is, 
therefore,  the  time  to  collect  roots  for  medicinal  purposes. 
Stems  and  stalks. 

The  trunk  or  stem  is  the  body  of  a  plant,  whether  it  be  a  tree 
like  the  oak,  a  shrub  like  the  lilac,  or  an  herb  like  the  pepper- 
mint or  sage ;  its  use  is  to  sustain  the  branches,  leaves,  and 
flowers ;  and  it  serves  as  an  organ  of  communication  between 
them  and  the  root,  conducting  from  the  latter  to  the  former, 
animal  and  vegetable  substances,  the  salts  and  earthy  matter 
which  the  radicles  by  their  mouths,  suck  up  for  the  nourishment 
of  the  plant. 

If  a  plant  be  watered  by  any  coloured  liquid,  the  stem  will  in 
time,  shew  that  this  fluid  has  ascended  into  it.  This  organ  also 
contains  asetof  vessels  which  carry  downwards  certain  juices, 
which  have  passed  through  peculiar  processes  in  the  leaves  of 
the  plant. 

But  of  the  circulation  of  fluids  in  the  vegetable  substance 
we  shall  speak  more  particularly  hereafter.  Our  present  ob- 
ject is,  to  describe  the  external  appearance  of  the  vegetable 

*  In  the  vicinity  of  Troy  I  have  seen  a  very  beautiful  species  of  the  Pterox- 
pora,  growing  upon  a  branch  of  the  whortle  berry.  Its  colour  was  a  bright 
crimson,  which  contrasted  finely  with  the  white  flowers,  and  green  leaves  of 
the  plant  on  which  it  grew. 

Air  plants—Proper  time  to  collect  roots  for  medicinal  purposes— Trunk-- 
Its use. 


STEMS  AND  STALKS. 


59 


organs  and  not  their  internal  structure ;  or*  in  other  words,  it  is 
the  anatomy  and  not  the  physiology  of  plants,  which  we  are  now 
attempting  to  explain. 

The  different  kinds  of  stems,  or  stalks,  have  been  divided  in- 
to  seven  classes,  as  follows — 

Caulis*  or  proper  stem,  Culm,  Scape,  Peduncle,  Petiole, 
Frond  and  Stipe. 
Fig.  20. 

1st.  Caulis  or  proper  stem,  is  such  as  is  seen 
in  forest  trees,  in  shrubs,  and  in  most  annual 
plants.  The  caulis  is  either  simple,  as  in  the 
,  white  lily ;  or  branching  as  in  the  geranium ; 
the  branching  is  the  more  common  form.  You 
vhave  here  Fig.  20,  the  representation  of  a 
*  caulis,  or  proper  stem,  (a) ;  a  peduncle,  or  flow- 
er  stalk,  (b);  and  the  petiole,  or  leafstalk,  (c). 


Fig.  21. 


2d.  Culm,  or  straw,  (Fig.  21  )  is  the  kind  of 
stem  which  you  see  in  grasses  and  rushes.  The 
culm  is  either  without  knots,  as  in  the  bulrush, 
jointed  or  knotted,  as  in  wheat  and  indian  corn, 
geniculated  or  bent  like  an  elbow,  as  in  some  of 
the  grasses  ;  those  culms  which  are  bent,  are  also 
knotted,  though  they  may  be  knotted » without  be- 
ing bent.  The  Bamboo,  Sugar  Cane,  and  vari- 
ous species  of  Reeds  have  stems  of  the  culm  kind'; 
some  of  them,  particularly  the  Bamboo,  are 
known  to  attain  the  height  of  forty  feet. 


*  This  kind  of  stem  is  by  the  French  called  tige;  the  i  should  be  sounded 
like  e,  the  g  soft  likej,  as  teje.  The  word  Caulis  is  from  the  Greek  Kaulos,  a 
stem. 


Division  of  stems— Caulis— Culm. 


60 


STEMS  AND  STALKS. 


Fig,  22. 

3d.  Scape,  (Fig.  22,  a,  a,)  a 
stalk  springing  from  the  root,  wlych 
bears  the  flower  and  fruit,  but  not 
the  leaves ;  as  the  Dandelion,  the 
Cowslip,  and  the  Lily  of  the  Val- 
ley. Plants  with  scapes  are  some- 
times called  stemless  plants ;  in  this 
case,  the  scape  would  be  consider- 
ed as  a  peduncle  proceeding  from 
the  root. 

4th.  Peduncle,  or  flower  stalk,  is  but  a  subdivision  of  the 
caulis  or  stem,  (See  Fig.  20,  b,) ;  it  bears  the  flower  and  fruit, 
but  not  the  leaves ;  when  the  peduncle  is  divided,  each  subdi- 
vision is  called  a  pedicel.* 

The  peduncle,  or  flower  stalk,  is, 

Cavline,  when  it  grows  immediately  out  of  the  main  stem ; 
Rameous,  or  branching,  when  it  grows  out  of  a  main  branch  ; 
Axillary,  growing  between  a  leaf  and  stem,  or  between  a  branch  and  stem; 
Terminal,  when  it  terminates  a  stem  or  branch ; 
Lateral,  when  situated  on  the  side  of  a  stem  or  branch ; 
.  Uni-Jlora,  bearing  one  flower ;  bi-flora,  two  flowers ;  tri-flora,  three  flowers ; 
Multi-flora,  bearing  many  flowers. 

When  there  is  no  peduncle  or  flower  stalk,  the  flowers  are 
said  to  be  sessile. 

5th.  Petiole,  or  leaf  stalk,  is  a  kind  of  stem,  like  a  fulcrum, 
supporting  the  leaf  (See  Fig.  20,  a,) ;  it  is  usually  green,  and 
appears  to  be  a  part  of  the  leaf  itself.  The  petiole  of  many 
plants  is  somewhat  in  the  form  of  a  cylinder ;  but  the  upper  sur- 
face is  rather  flattened,  the  under  surface  convex.  You  will 
find  this  remark  useful,  in  distinguishing  the  foot-stalks  of  com- 
pound leaves,  from  young  branches,  with  which  they  are  some- 
times confounded.  In  most  cases,  the  leaves  and  flowers  are 
supported  by  distinct  foot-stalks,  but  sometimes  the  foot-stalk 
supports  both  the  leaf  and  flower. 

The  petiole  may  be, 

Terete,  round,  as  in  the  Holly-hock ; 

Semi-Terete,  half  round,  as  in  the  Yellow  water-lily ; 

Compressed,  flattened,  as  the  Poplar ; 

Alated,  winged,  or  furnished  on  each  side  with  a  leafy  appendage ; 

Cirriferus,  having  tendrils,  as  the  Pea ; 

Climbing,  performing  the  office  of  a  tendril,  as  the  CLEMATIS  virginica. 

The  Petiole  is  often  compared  with  the  leaf,  as  the  peduncle 
is  with  the  flower,  with  regard  to  their  relative  length. 

*  In  determining  the  species  of  plants,  we  often  consider  the  length  of  the  pe- 
duncle, compared  with  the  flower :  as  whether  the  peduncles  are  longer  or 
shorter  than  the  flower. 


Scape— Peduncle— Petiole. 


STEM. 


61 


Fig.  23. 


6th.  Frond.  (Fig.  23.)  The 
term  Frond,  belongs  entirely  to 
Cryptogamous  plants.  This  term 
however  is  applied  to  the  leaf 
rather  than  the  stem ;  in  this 
sketch  of  the  fern  the  leafy  part 
is  the  frond  ;  this  bears  the  flow- 
er and  fruit.  Linnaeus  consi- 
dered the  leaves  of  palm  trees 
as  fronds ;  we  shall  hereafter 
observe  upon  the  different  in- 
ternal structure  of  their  stems 
from  those  of  the  oak  anc^  other 
plants  which  are  termed  cauline,  because  their  stem  is  a  caulis. 
Plants  with  fronds  and  stipes  are  sometimes  called  by  the  gene- 
ral name  of  s/?ped-plants  ;  they  are  monocotyledonous.  The 
stem  of  the  fern  (Fig.  23,  #),  is  called  a  stipe.  By  observa- 
tions of  geologists  it  is  ascertained  that  stiped  plants  were  cre- 
ated before  cauline  ones ;  since  petrifactions  of  the  former  are 
found  in  the  lower  formations  of  the  earth,  while  no  remains  of 
cauline  plants  are  ever  found  in  them.  Here  is  the  sketch  of 
a  fern ;  its  stem  a,  is  called  a  frond. 

7th.  Stipe  (Fig.  24),  is  the  stem  or  leafless  part 
of  a  frond,  or  the  stalk  of  a  fungus  or  mushroom, 
c  The  te;rm  is  also  applied  to  the  slender  thread, 
which  in  many  of  the  compound  flowers,  elevates 
a  the  hairy  crown,  with  which  the  seeds  are  furnish- 
ed, and  connects  it  with  the  seed.     Thus,  in  the 
b  seeds  of  the  Dandelion,  which  is  here  represented, 
the  column  (Fig.  24,  a),  standing  on  the  seed  (£),  and  elevating 
the  down  (c),  is  the  stipe. 
Fig.  25. 

Here  is  a  mushroom  with  the  cap  (Fig. 
25,  d),  elevated  on  its  stipe  (e). 

Having  considered  the  different  kinds 
of  stems,  according  to  the  division  which 
most  botanical  writers  have  made,  we  will 
now  notice  some  general  circumstances 
relating  to  them,  without  reference  to  any 
one  of  these  classes  of  stalks  in  particular. 
The  coherence  or  hardness  of  stems  has 
given  rise  to  the  following  distinctions : 

Frond— Which  part  of  the  fern  is  its  frond  ?— Which  the  srtipe  ?— Difference 
between  stiped  and  cauline  plants— Which  first  formed  ?— Different  applica- 
tions of  the  terra  stipe— Stipe  of  a  dandelion  seed—Of  a  fungus. 

6 


62  STEM. 

Herbaceous,  having  a  tender  substance,  which  usually  dies  every  year ;  in 
some  cases  when  the  root  lives  more  than  one  year,  the  stem  is  annual ;  as  in 
the  tulip;  Woody,  as  in  the  o^ak  ;  Soli d,  like  the  box  ;  Pithy,  as  the  elder;  Hol- 
low, as  in  the  onion ;  Corky,  as  in  the  cork ;  or  Pulpy,  as  in  the  cactus  or 
prickly  pear. 

The  stem  with  respect  to  its  direction,  or  mode  of  growth,  is 

Perpendicular,  or  erect,  forming  a  right  angle  with  the  ground,  as  the  Pink  ; 

Procumbent,  lying  down ; 

Oblique,  when  it  is  neither  perpendicular  nor  horizontal  ; 

Creeping,  as  one  species  of  Ranunculus  ; 

Reclining,  curved  towards  the  ground  as  the  Blackberry ; 

Radical,  clinging  to  some  other  body  for  support,  by  means  of  fibres  which 
do  nol  imbibe  nourishment ;  as  the  common  Creeper ; 

Climbing,  either  with  spiral  tendrils  for  its  support,  as  the  Vine,  or  by  adhe- 
sive fibres ; 

Twining,  winding  in  a  spiral  manner  around  other  plants,  as  the  Hop  ; 

Trailing,  a  creeping  stem  destitute  of  flowers,  thrown  out  from  the  root  and 
giving  rise  to  another  plant  where  it  takes  root,  as  the  Strawberry. 

Stems  as  to  shape,  are, 

Terete  or  cylindrical,  long  and  round ;  as  in  the  rose  and  lilac,  and  in  most 
of  the  woody  and  herbaceous  plants ; 

Comprefsed,  more  or  less  flattened  on  the  sides  ; 

Anceps,  two  edged ; 

Triangular,  three  edged ; 

Quadrangular,  square,  or  four  sided  ; 

Pentagonous,  five  sided.  If  the  number  of  angles  is  either  variable,  or  more 
than  five,  the  stem  is  said  to  be  angulosus,  or  angled. 

The  surface  of  the  stem  may  be, 

Glabrous,  smooth,  destitute  of  hairs  or  glands ; 
Polished,  the  surface  equal  and  smooth  : 
Pubescent,  covered  with  hair,  or  glands  resembling  hairs; 
Villuse.,  shaggy,  covered  with  long  soft  hairs ; 
Pilose,  hairs  long  and  distinct : 

Tomentose,  hairs  short  and  closely  matted  together,  like  cotton  or  down ; 
Hispid,  bristly,  hairs  stiff; 
Scaly,  covered  with  membranous  scales ; 

Imbricated,  stem  concealed  by  leaves,  which  sit  close  like  shingles  on  the  roof 
of  a  house; 

Viscid,  covered  with  a  clammy  juice ; 
Papillose,  cov.  rod  with  soft  points  or  tubercles; 
Scabrous,  rough  to  the  touch ; 
Hoary,  as  if  frosted  ; 

Meaty,  (glaucus,)  of  a  sea-green  mealiness,  which  easily  rubs  off; 
Stridted,rm&rked  w  ith  parallel  longitudinal  lines. 

The  stem  is  either  simple,  or  divided  into  branches.  The 
branches  are  parts,  of  the  plant  which  proceed  immediately 
from  the  trunk ;  the  divisions  of  the  branches  arc  called  branch- 
lets  ;  a  diminutive  appellation,  which  means  a  little  branch. 
These  parts  resemble,  in  their  formation,  the  trunk  or  stem, 
which  furnishes  them ;  the  branch  may  be  considered  as  a 
tree,  implanted  upon  another  tree  of  the  same  species. 

Branches  sometimes  grow  without  any  apparent  order  in 

Stems  with  respect  to  hardness— Direction— Shape-  Surface— divisions 
Disposition  of  branches. 


STEM.  63 

their  arrangement ;  sometimes  they  are  opposite ;  sometimes 
alternate  ;  and  sometimes,  as  in  the  pine,  they  form  a  series  of 
rings  around  the  trunk.  Some  branches  are  erect  as  in  the 
poplar,  others  pendant  as  in  the  willow,  and  some,  as  in  the 
oak,  form  nearly  a  right  angle  with  the  trunk. 

These  various  circumstances  constitute  distinctive  charac- 
ters in  plants,  a  knowledge  of  which  is  very  necessary  to  the 
painter.  Of  all  our  forest  trees,  perhaps  none,  in  the  disposi- 
tion of  its  branches,  presents  a  more  beautiful  and  graceful 
aspect  than  the  elm. 

The  branches  of  trees,  as  they  grow  older,  usually  form  a 
more  open  angle  with  the  trunk  than  at  first.  We  often  see 
branches  form  a  very  acute  angle,  but  as  the  tree  advances  in 
age,  the  angles  enlarge  more  and  more,  until  the  branch  be- 
comes pendant. 

Fig.  26. 

Some  stems  are  remarkable  for  bearing  bulbs 
in  the  axils  of  their  leaves. .  These  bulbs  like  the 
bulbous  root,  contain  within  them  the  germ  of  a 
new  plant.  The  LILITJM  BULBIFERUM,  or  bulb- 
bearing  lily  is  of  this  description,  (Fig.  26.) 

A  remarkable  phenomenon  is  described  by 
travellers,  as  being  exhibited  by  the  stems  of  the 
Banyan  tree  of  India,  Ficus  Indicus ;  their  stems 
throw  out  fibres,  which  descend  and  take  root  in 
the  earth.  In  process  of  time  these  stems  become 
large  trees,  and  thus  from  one  primitive  root,  is 
formed  a  little  forest.  This  tree  is  called  by  va- 
rious names ;  as  the  Indian-God-tree,  the  arch- 
ed-Fig-tree, &c, 

The  Hindoos  plant  it  near  their  temples,  and 
in  many  cases  the  tree  itself  serves  them  for  a 
temple.  Milton  speaks  of  this  tree  as  the  one 
from  which  Adam  and  Eve  obtained  leaves  to 
form  themselves  garments ;  he  says  it  was  not 
the  fig-tree  renowned  for  fruit,  but 

"  Such  as  at  this  day  to  Indians  known 

In  Malabar  or  Decan,  spreads  her  arras, 

Branching  so  broad  and  long,  that  in  the  ground 

The  bended  twigs  take  root,  and  daughters  grow 

About  the  mother  tree,  a  pillar'd  shade 

High  over-arched,  and  echoing  walks  between." 

Knowledge  necessary  to  the  painter — Branches  alter  in  their  disposition  as 
they  grow  older — Bulb,  bearing  stems — Rooting  stems. 


04  OF  BUDS. 

You  have  here  a  description  of  this  wonderful  tree,  which  is 
said  to  have  given  shelter  to  an  army  of  seventy  thousand  men. 
Fig.  27. 


Ficus  1  n<  lie  i  is. 

All  the  varieties  of  stems  which  We  have  now  considered  may 
be  included  under  two  divisions;  1st.  such  as  grow  externally, 
having  their  wood  arranged  in  concentric  layers,  the  oldest  be- 
ing in  the  centre  of  the  trunk  and  the  newest  forming  the  outer 
layer.  This  kind  of  stem  may  be  seen  in  the  oak  and  other 
forest  trees  in  our  climate,  and  also  in  most  of  our  common 
herbaceous  plants ;  these  spring  from  seeds  with  two  cotyle- 
dons, and  are  called  dicotyledons. 

2d.  Stems  which  grow  internally ',  as  palms  and  grasses,  their 
wood  instead  of  circling  around  the  first  formed  substance,  is 
pushed  outwards  by  the  developement  of  new  fibres  in  the  cen- 
tre of  the  stem  ;  this  kind  of  stem  belongs  to  plants  whose 
seeds  have  but  one  cotyledon,  and  which  are  therefore  called 
monocotyledons.  * 


LECTURE  VIII. 

Of  Buds. 

Most  leaves  and  flowers  proceed  from  scaly  coverings  called 
buds.  The  scales  envelope  each  other  closely ;  the  exterior 

*  These  two  kinds  of  stem  have  by  some  French  botanists  been  called  exo- 
genous and  endogenous ;  these  words  are  derived  from  the  Greek  ;  the  first 
signifying  to  grow  externally,  the  second  to  grow  internally. 

Stems  included  in  two  divisions — Stems  of  dicotyledons — Of  monocotyle- 
dons. 


OF  BUDS.  65 

ones  being  dry  and  hard,  the  interior,  moist  and  covered  with 
down;  they  are  also  furnished  with  a  kind  of  resin  or  balsam, 
which  prevents  the  embryo  from  being  injured  by  too^  much 
moisture  :  buds  have  been  known  to  lie  for  years  in  water  with- 
out injury  to.  the  infant  plant  or  branch  within. 

The  sap  is  the  great  fountain  of  vegetable  life,  by  its  agency 
new  buds  are  yearly  formed  to  replace  the  leaves  and  flowers 
destroyed  by  the  severity  of  winter.  Branches  also  originate 
from  buds.  Linna3us  supposed  that  buds  spring  from  the  pith, 
this  being  found  necessary  to  their  formation  and  growth. 

The  bud  is  usually  a  cone-like  protuberance  formed  by  the 
swelling  of  the  germ  ;  and  as  for  this  purpose  the  agency  of 
an  additional  quantity  of  sap  is  needed,  we  see  the  bud  appear- 
ing at  the  axils  of  leaves  or  the  extremities  of  branches  and 
stems  where  there  is  an  accumulation  of  this  fluid. 

If  you  plant  a  slip  of  Geranium,  you  will  observe  that  it  ei- 
ther sprouts  from  the  axil  of  a  leaf,  or  from  knots  in  the  stem 
which  answer  the  same  purpose  as  the  leaf,  by  slightly  inter- 
rupting the  circulation  of  the  juices,  and  thus  affording  an  ac- 
cumulation of  sap  necessary  for  the  production  of  a  new  shoot. 

Some  botanists  distinguish  the  bud  as  follows:  that  point  in 
the  plant  which  gives  rise  to  the  bud  is  called  the  eye ;  when 
this  begins  to  swell  and  become  apparent,  it  is  called  the  button  ; 
and  when  it  begins  to  unfold,  the  bud.* 

Herbs  and  shrubs  have  buds,  but  these  usually  grow  and  un- 
fold themselves  in  the  same  season,  and  are  destitute  of  scales ; 
while  the  buds  of  trees  are  not  perfected  in  less  than  two  sea- 
sons, and  in  some  cases  they  require  years  for  their  full  de- 
vdopement.  You  have,  no  doubt,  observed  in  the  spring,  the 
rapid  growth  of  the  leaves  and  branches  of  trees ;  and  perhaps, 
have  also  noticed,  that  as  summer  advances,  the  progress  of 
vegetation  seems  almost  to  cease,  and  that  new  leaves  and 
branches  do  not  come  forth  as  before ;  but  you  may  not  have 
known,  that  instead  of  resting  in  her  operations,  nature  is  now 
busy  in  providing  for  the  next  year ;  that  she  is  turning  the  vi- 
tal energies  of  the  plants  to  the  formation  of  buds.  Those 
little  embryo  plants  so  nicely  wrapped  up  in  downy  scales  as  to 
be  able  to  bear  the  coldness  of  winter,  in  the  ensuing  spring 
will  come  forth  from  their  snug  retreats,  and  taking  the  places 

*  These  terms  in  French  are  Vceil  the  eye,  bouton  the  button,  and  bourgeons 
the  bud. 

Buds  supposed  to  originate  from  the  pith — Sap  needed  for  its  formation — 
The  eye,  button  and  bud — Herbs  and  shrubs  destitute  of  scaly  buds — Period  in 
which  the  formation  of  buds  commences. 

6* 


C6  OF  BUDS. 

of  the  leaves  which  had  withered  in  autumn,  delight  us  with 
new  verdure  and  beauty. 

The  poet  Cowperhas  the  following  lines  on  the  formation  of 
buds ;  they  evince  that  character  of  piety  which  distinguishes 
this  excellent  man,  in  all  his  writings: 

"When  all  this  uniform  uncoloured  scene, 

Shall  be  dismantled  of  its  fleecy  load, 

And  flush  into  variety  again, 

From  dearth  to  plenty,  and  from  death  to  life, 

Is  Nature's  progress,  when  she  lectures  man 

In  heavenly  truth ;  evincing,  as  she  makes 

The  grand  transition,  that  there  lives  and  works 

A  soul  in  all  things,  and  that  soul  is'GoD. 

HE  sets  the  bright  procession  on  its  way, 

And  marshals  all  the  order  of  the  year ; 

HE  marks  the  bounds  which  winter  may  not  pan, 

And  blunts  his  pointed  fury  :  in  its  case, 

Russet  and  rude,  folds  up  the  tender  germ, 

Uninjured,  with  inimitable  art ; 

And  ere  one  flowery  season  fades  and  dies, 

Designs  the  blooming  wonders  of  the  next." 

You  may  here  see  a  representation  of  two  scaly 
buds;  one  of  which  appears  as  if  cut  vertically,  in 
'order  to  show  the  germ  or  embryo  which  is  enfold- 
ed by  the  scales. 

Some  French  botanists*  have  explained  the  form- 
ation  of  the  scaly  covering  of  buds  in  a  manner 
somewhat  different  from  the  generally  received  opin- 
ion. 'They  suppose  that  the  bud  does  indeed  begin  its  existence 
in'  tjie  latter  part  of  summer,  the  eye  being  then  formed  ;  that 
it  exists  in  this  state  during  the  winter,  but  being  acted  upon  by 
some  change  of  the  temperature,  it  begins  to  force  its  way 
through  the  bark  into  the  atmosphere  ;  here  the  young  leaves 
which  would  put  forth,  becoming  chilled  by  an  ungcnial  atmos- 
phere, contract  and  harden,  and  at  length  form  scales.  These 
scales  afterwards  protect  the  new  leaves,  that,  urged  by  the 
same  vegetable  instinct,  are  in  their  turn,  seeking  to  emerge  into 
Tight  and  air.  If  we  admit  this  explanation  with  respect  to  the 
formation  of  scales,  it  seems  not  difficult  to  account  for  that  of 
the  downy  substance,  which,  lining  these  scales,  protects  the 
embryo  leaves  and  flowers  from  cold ;  and  the  covering  of 
varnish,  which  defends  them  from  moisture.  When  the  leaf 
becomes  a  scale,  it  then  absorbs  from  the  sap  but  a  portion  of 
what  was  destined  for  its  use,  and  it  is  supposed  that  this  sap  i« 
converted  into  the  resinous- substance,  or  varnish.  With  re- 

*  De  Candolle,  and  some  others. 

Opinion  of  some  botanists  with  respect  to  the  formation  of  the  scaly  covering 
of  buds. 


OF  BUDS.  67 

spect  to  the  downy  coat  upon  the  inside  of  the  scales,  this  may 
be  seen  in  the  rudiments  of  the  leaves,  if  examined  before  the 
bud  is  developed. 

These  hypotheses  do  not,  in  any  degree,  derogate  from  the 
wisdom  of  Him,  of  whom  Cowper  says,  that  "  with  art  inimi- 
table, he  folds  up  the  tender  germ;"  for  whether  He  acts  by 
secondary  causes,  or  "  Speaks  and  it  is  done,"  the  design  is 
alike  apparent. 

The  term  bud,  in  common  language,  extends  to  the  rudi- 
ments of  all  plants,  whether  with  scales  or  without,  which  ori- 
ginate upon  other  living  plants.  Buds  with  scales  are  chiefly 
confined  to  the  trees  of  cold  countries.  In  the  northern  part 
of  the  United  States,  there  are  few  trees  wjiich  can  endure  the 
cold  weather,  without  this  security.  In  Sweden,  it  is  said, 
there  is  but  one  shrub*  destitute  of  buds,  and  this  from  the 
peculiarity  of  its  situation,  is  always  protected  from  the  in- 
clemencies of  the  weather.  • 

It  appears  that  no  perennial  plants,  but  those  furnished  with 
scaly  buds,  can  live  in  climates  where  it  snows  a  part  of  the 
year ;  the  trees  of  the  torrid  zone,  the  wood  of  which  appears 
hard  and  firm,  perish  in  our  climate.  In  warm  climates  the 
buds  of  the  trees  are  without  scales,  as  the  tender  shoots  do  not 
need  their  protection. 

That  there  is,  in  reality,  a  difference  in  the  nature  of  vege- 
tables, as  well  as  animals,  is  very  apparent ;  an  orange  tree 
will  never  form  scales  to  protect  its  buds  from  cold,  any  more 
than  the  most  delicate  tropical  animals  can  resist  the  rigors  of 
a  polar  climate.  There  are  cases  however  in  which  plants,  as 
well  as  animals,  change  their  habits.  The  horse-chesnut,  in 
India,  its  native  climate,  unfolds  its  leaves  to  the  atmosphere, 
without  their  receiving  any  check  in  their  developement ;  in  a 
colder  climate,  the  leaves  in  attempting  to  unfold,  are  checked 
in  their  progress,  and  degenerate  into  scales,  and  form  buds. 

Monocotyledonous  plants  seldom  produce  more  than  one  bud 
annually.  On  the  summit  of  the  palm  appears  the  bud,  con- 
taining the  leaves  and  flowers ;  from  the  centre  of  this  bud,  a 
footstalk  springs  up  bearing  the  flower,  while  the  leaves  spread 
out  at  its  base.  The  following  year  the  old  leaves  decay, 
forming  by  their  indurated  remains  a  ring  around  the  stipe  of 
the  palm,  and  a  new  bud  is  formed  upon  its  summit  as  before. 

*  A  species  of  Wiamnus,  which  grows  under  trees,  in  marshy  forests. 

These  hypotheses,  if  admitted,  do  not  derogate  from  the  wisdom  of  the  Crea- 
tor— The  term  bud,  how  extensive  in  its  application — Scaly  buds  chiefly  con- 
fined to  cold  countries — Difference  in  the  nature  of  vegetables — Plants  some- 
times change  their  habits;  example,  the  horse-chesnut — Buds  of  the  palm. 


68  OF  BUDS. 

This  bud  of  the  palm,  from  its  form  and  size,  is  often  called  the 
cabbage. 

Some  botanists  enumerate  four  kinds  of  buds :  1st.  the  bulb; 
2d.  the  bulbille ;  3d.  the  turion,  or  little  bulb ;  and  4th.  the 
proper  bud. 

We  have  already  considered  the  bulb,  under  the  head  of 
roots.  Botanists  have  occasioned  some  confusion  in  the  science 
by  placing  the  bulb  among  roots  and  buds ;  yet  they  seem  to 
bear  a  close  analogy  to  both.  An  onion  bulb,  like  the  bud  of 
the  palm,  contains  the  stem,  leaves  and  flower ;  its  radicles  are 
indeed  the  true  root. 

The  bulbille  is  often  found  in  the  axils  of  leaves,  as  was  rep- 
resented  at  Fig.  26. 

The  turion  differs  but  little,  except 
in  size,  from  the  bulb  ;  it  appears  up- 
on roots  of  perennial  plants,  as  may 
be  seen  in  Fig.  29,  a. 

Of  the  proper  £ud,  there  are  three  sorts ; 

1st.  The  flower  bud,  which  is  of  a  short  round  form,  and 
contains  the  rudiments  of  one  or  several  flowers,  without  leaves, 
folded  over  each  and  surrounded  with  scales.  It  is  often  found 
at  the  extremities  of  small  short  branches ;  this  is  the  kind  of 
bud  which  is  employed  in  grafting  or  innoculating.  This  ope- 
ration is  performed  by  cutting  into  the  bark  of  another  tree,  and 
placing  a  bud  or  several  buds  in  the  aperture. 

2nd.  The  leaf  bud,  contains  the  rudiments  of  several  leaves 
without  flowers ;  it  is  usually  longer  and  more  pointed  than  the 
flower  bud. 

3rd.  The  mixed  bud;  containing  both  leaves  and  flowers. 
In  the  peach  we  have  examples  of  the  two  first  divisions  ;  the. 
leaf  and  flower  bud  being  distinct.  In  the"  lilac  they  are  en- 
closed together  in  the  same  bud. 

The  leaf  buds,  if  taken  from  the  tree  and  planted  in  the  earth, 
will  grow  and  put  forth  roots  ;  but  the  flower  buds  in  the  same. 
situation  will  perish.  You  will  jx)rceive  that  a  striking  analogy 
exists  between  buds  and  seeds,  as  well  as  between  buds  ami 
roots. 

You  have  now  seen  the  manner  in  which  buds  commence 
their  existence ;  and  how  they  gradually  unfold  themselves  un- 
til they  become  in  their  turn  branches,  covered  with  leaves 
and  flowers.  In  considering  this  subject  you  cannot  but  have 

Different  kinds  of  Buds— 1st.  Bulb— 2d.  Bulbille— Turion— Proper  bud- 
Flower  bud— Leaf  bud— 3Iiied  bud— Reflections  suggested  by  a  view  of  the 
subject. 


LEAVES.  69 

been  impressed  with  a  sense  of  the  goodness  of  that  great  Being 
who  watches  with  unceasing  care,  over  his  vast  creation.  To 
observe  the  progress  of  life,  whether  in  the  vegetable  or  animal 
kingdoms,  is  highly  interesting  to  an  investigating  mind ;  but 
here  the  power  of  man  can  achieve  nothing ;  he  may  plant 
and  water,  but  God  alone  giveth  the  increase. 

A:  bud  lives,  an  infant  lives ;  both  are  destined  to  grow,  and 
to  pass  through  physical  changes ;  but  the  bud,  although  ac- 
tive with  a  principle  of  life,  knows  not  its  own  existence ;  while 
the  infant  becomes  conscious  of  its  own  powers  and  faculties, 
capable  of  loving  those  who  have  contributed  to  its  well  being, 
and  especially  of  adoring  the  great  Author  of  its  existence. 

It  is  delightful,  while  gratifying  our  natural  love  of  knowledge, 
by  inquiring  into  the  economy  of  nature,  to  be  thus  met  at 
every  step,  with  new  proofs  of  the  goodness  and  wisdom  of  the 
Author  of  Nature,  particularly  as  manifested  towards  the  hu- 
man race.  To  discover  the  character  of  the  Deity,  should  in- 
deed  be  the  end  and  aim  of  all  knowledge  ;  and  even  should 
an  occasional  digression  from  the  subject  of  your  present  study, 
retard  your  progress  in  botanical  investigations,  the  loss  would 
be  slight,  compared  to  the  gain  of  one  pious  and  devout  aspira- 
tion of  the  heart. 

When  we  become  so  deeply  engaged  in  philosophical  specu- 
lations, as  to  forget  Him  whose  works  we  study,  we  have  wan- 
dered far  from  the  path  of  true  knowledge.  It  was  not  thus 
that  Newton  studied  the  laws  of  matter,  or  Locke  and  Watts 
the  laws  of  mind,  or  Paley  the  animal  and  vegetable  physioL 
ogy  ;  these  great  and  good  men,  made  their  rich  treasures  of 
knowledge  subservient  to  one  great  design,  that  of  illustrating 
the  character  of  God,  and  teaching  our  duty  to  him. 


LECTURE  IX. 

Of  Leaves. 

You  all  know  what  is  meant  by  the  leaf  of  a  vegetable  ;  but 
were  you  called  on  to  give  a  definition  of  the  term  leaf,  you 
might  find  it  more  difficult  than  at  first  you  would  imagine. 
Young  persons  are  often  disconcerted,  when  asked  by  their 
teachers  to  explain  some  word  of  which  they  have  an  idea,  and 
yet  find  themselves  unable  to  give  a  definition ;  but  although 

Comparison  between  a  bud  and  an  infant — The  goodness  of  God  particularly 
manifested  towards  the  human  race — Philosophical  speculations  should  not 
lead  us  to  forget  the  Author  of  nature — Difficulty  in  giving  correct  definitions. 


70  LEAVES. 

the  pupil  may  be  surprised  at  this  fact,  it  is  not  unaccountable 
to  those  who  know,  that  although  we  may  have  the  picture  of 
an  object  in  the  mind,  it  is  not  always  easy  to  convey  our  con- 
ceptions  to  the  minds  of  others.  To  give  correct  definitions  of 
terms,  is  one  of  the  greatest  difficulties  in  science. 

The  manner  in  which  different  persons  describe  objects,  va- 
ries with  the  degree  of  knowledge  possessed  respecting  their 
properties.  For  example  ;  in  attempting  to  describe  common 
salt,  if  a  person  knew  nothing  more  of  it  than  his  unassisted 
senses  had  informed  him,  he  would  speak  of  its  colour,  taste, 
and  other  obvious  properties ;  one  familiar  with  the  principles 
of  chemistry,  would  first  speak  of  the  materials  which  compose 
salt ;  he  would  describe  it  as  a  compound  substance,  consisting 
of  chlorine  and  sodium;  and  then  might  enumerate  its  proper- 
ties.  In  the  first  definition,  given  without  any  reference  to 
scientific  principles,  there  is  nothing  so  definite  as  to  afford  a 
certain  mark  of  distinction  between  salt  and  other  substances ; 
in  the  chemical  definition,  we  have  a  test  for  salt,  Sn  a  know- 
ledge of  its  composition,  which  distinguishes  it  from  all  other 
substances. 

In  botanical  definitions,  we  do  not  include  the  constituent 
elements  of  the  vegetable  substance ;  this  belongs  to  the  de- 
partment of  chemistry,  but  we  consider  the  external  forms  and 
uses  of  the  various  parts  of  the  plant. 

One  botanist*  says,  "  leaves  are  organs  of  an  expanded  form, 
almost  always  of  a  green  colour,  internally  vascular,  and  more 
or  less  pulpy."  Another  botanistf  says,  "the  leaf  may  be  de- 
fined to  be  a  temporary  organ  of  plants,  which  performs  nearly 
the  same  function  in  the  economy  of  vegetable  life,  as  the 
lungs  perform  in  the  animal ;  or,  they  are  the  respiratory  or- 
gans of  plants." 

We  might  go  on  quoting  from  different  authors,  each  of 
whom  describe  according  to  their  own  manner  of  considering 
the  subject ;  but  as  our  object  is,  to  express  botanical  facts  in 
the  most  simple  terms,  we  will  merely  add  to^  the  definitions 
above  given,  one  which,  with  your  present  knowledge,  is  as 
scientific  as  you  can  understand. 

The  leaf  is  generally  a  thin,  flat  organ,  consisting  of  an  ex- 
pansion of  the  fibres  of  the  bark,  connected  by  a  substance 
which  is  called  the  cellular  tissue ;  the  whole  is  covered  with 
a  green  coat  or  skin  called  the  cuticle.  Leaves  are  furnished 

«  Withering.  t  Nutall. 

Descriptions  of  objects  vary  with  our  knowledge  of  their  properties — Differ, 
cat  definitions  of  leaves — General  description  of  a  leaf. 


LEAVES.  71 

with  pores*  for  exhaling  and  inhaling  gases ;  and  as  they  pre- 
sent to  the  air  a  more  extended  surface  than  all  other  parts  of 
a  plant,  they  are  of  great  utility  to  the  vegetable,  by  imbibing 
suitable  nourishment,  and  throwing  off  such  gases  as  would  be 
useless  or  injurious. 

We  have  seen  how  the  bud  is  formed,  and  by  what  curious 
means  the  principle  of  vegetable  life  which  it  contains  is  pre- 
served and  protected  through  the  cold  and  dampness  of  winter. 
In  the  spring,  when  the  sun  has  turned  his  course  towards  the 
north,  recrossed  the  equator,  and  is  advancing  towards  the  tro- 
pic of  Cancer  ;  the  vegetable  world,  quickened  by  its  influence, 
begins  to  awaken  from  its  dormant  state  ;  the  leaf  buds  expand, 
and  soon  bursting  their  envelopes,  the  green  leaves  come  forth. 
The  manner  in  which  the  leaf,  before  it  expands,  lies  wrapped 
up  in  the  scales  of  the  bud,  is  called  Foliation ;  this  presents  an 
interesting  study,  and  is  said  to  be  sufficiently  various,  in  differ- 
ent families  of  plants,  to  afford  a  mark  of  distinction  between 
them. 

In  the  buds  of  grasses  the  leaves  are  said  to  be  rolled  to- 
gether ;  in  the  rose,  one  side  of  the  leaf  is  doubled  upon  the 
stem ;  in  the  maple,  the  leaves  are  plaited  or  folded  up  like  a 
fan ;  in  the  blue  bell,  imbricated,  or  laid  over  one  another  like 
tiles  on  the  roof  of  a  house ;  in  the  monk's  hood  they  are  bent 
downwards  towards  the  petiole. 

Some  plants  are  destitute  of  leaves;  they  are  then  called 
Aphyllous,  which  term  signifies  wanting  leaves. 

In  determining  the  species  of  plants,  the  leaves  are  much  re- 
garded ;  specific  names  are  often  given  from  some  circumstance 
of  the  leaf,  for  example ;  the  HEPATICA  tritoba  is  that  species 
of  the  Hepatica,  which  has  leaves  with  three  divisions  called 
lobes ;  the  VIOLA  rotundifolia  is  a  species  of  violet  with  round 
leaves. 

A  knowledge  of  the  various  appearances  presented  by  leaves, 
is  of  great  importance;  in  order  to  become  acquainted 
with  all  their  varieties,  considerable  practice  in  the  analysis  of 
plants  is  necessary.  Engravings  will  assist  you  in  understand- 
ing the  definitions,  but  you  must  chiefly  consult  nature.  There 
are  many  terms  to  express  the  varieties  observable  in  leaves ; 
we  shall  here  explain  some  of  the  most  important. 

*  Technically  called  stomas. 

Utility  of  leaves  to  the  whole  plant — The  period  at  which  loaves  appear — 
Foliation — Aphyllous  leaves — Leaves  furnish  specific  characters. 


72  LEAVES.      , 

Leaves  considered  with  regard  to  the  manner  in  which  they  sue- 
ceed  each  other  in  different  stages  of  the  plant. 

1.  Seminal,  leaves   which  come  up  with  the  plant  when  it 
first  appears  above  the  surface  of  the  earth :  as  in  the  garden 
bean ;  tnese  leaves  are  only  the  cotyledons  or  lobes  of  the  seed, 
which,  after  nourishing  the  young  plant,  decay. 

2.  Primordial,  leaves  'growing  immediately  after  the  semi- 
nal  leaves,  and  resembling  them  in   position,  form,  and  size. 
The  primordial  leaf,  according  to  the  fanciful  idea  of  a  French 
botanist,  is  a  sketch  which  nature  makes  before  the  perfection 
of  her  work. 

3.  Characteristic,  leaves  which  are  found  in  the  mature  state 
of  the  plant ;  or  according  to  the  idea  above  advanced,  nature 
in  them,  perfects  her  design. 

It  is  not  always,  however,  that  this  process  with  regard  to 
change  of  leaves  takes  place ;  as  in  many  cases  the  proper,  or 
characteristic  leaf,  is  the  only  one  which  appears. 

There  are  many  terms  to  express  the  mode  o}'  insertion  of  the 
leaf;  such  as  radical  growing  from  the  root  (radix),  cauline 
growing  from  the  stem  (caulis),  &c. 

To  express  imposition  of  leaves  we  find  the  terms,  apposite, 
alternate,  &c. 

The  form  of  the  leaf  is  expressed  by  various  terms,  borrow- 
ed from  the  names  of  different  objects ;  as  digetate  (from  digitus, 
the  finger),  &c.  For  the  explanation  of  these  different  techni- 
cal terms  we  must  advise  you  to  consult  the  vocabulary  as  of- 
ten as  you  find  those  you  do  not  understand.  We  will,  how- 
ever, illustrate  some  of  the  most  common  forms  of  simple* 
leaves. 

Fig.  30. 


Orbicular,  or  the  round  leaf;  the  Nasturtion  (Tropoeolum), 
affords  an  example  of  this  kind  (See  Fig.  30,  a) ;  this  is  also 

leaves  with  respect  to  succession — Insertion  of  leaves — Position — Form — 
Orbicular. 


LEAVES. 


73 


peltate,  having  its  petiole  inserted  into  the  centre  of  the  leaf, 
and  thus  resembling  a  shield. 

Reniform  (from  the  Latin  ren,  the  kidney),  or  as  it  is  some- 
times called  kidney. form;  the  Ground-ivy  (Glechonia),  has  a 
leaf  of  this  kind.  (See  Fig.  30,  b ;)  it  is  crenale,  or  has  a  mar- 
gin with  scalloped  divisions ;  ciliate,  being  fringed  with  hairs 
like  eyelashes. 

Cordate  (from  the  Latin  cor,  the  heart),  or  heart-shaped. 
(See  Fig.  30,  c ;)  this  form  resembles  more  the  figure  of  a  heart 
as  seen  in  a  pack  of  cards,  than  of  a  real  heart ;  this  figure 
represents  a  cordate  leaf  with  an  accuminated  point,  that  is  acute 
and  turned  to  one  side ;  the  margin  is  serrated,  or  notched  like 
the  teeth  of  a  saw^;  an  example  of  this  kind  may  be  seen  in  the 
aster  cordifolium.  Fig.  31. 


Ovate,  obovate,  oval;  these  are  terms  derived  from  the  Latin 
ovum,  an  egg  ;  suppose  the  figure  at  31,  a,  to  represent  an  egg ; 
you  observe  that  one  end  is  broader  than  the  other  ;  now  if  to 
this  broad  end  you  add  a  petiole  prolonging  it  into  a  mid-rib 
with  some  lateral  divisions,  you  have,  as  at  b,  the  representation 
of  an  ovate  leaf.  If  the  petiole  were  placed  at  the  narrowest 
end,  it  would  be  an  obovate  leaf.  An  oval  leaf  (c),  is  when 
both  the  ends  are  of  equal  breadth.  When  the  length  is  much 
greater  than  the  breadth,  the  leaf  is  said  to  be  elliptical,  as  at  d. 
Fig.  32. 

Lanceolate, 
this  kind  of 
leaf  may  be 
seen  in  the 
peach  tree ;  it 
is  represented 
in  Fig.  32,  a  ; 
this  is  an  ac- 
cuminated, or 
slightly  accu- 
minate,  with 
a  serrulated 
or  slightly 
notched  mar- 
gin,  at  (£,) 

Reniform— Cordate— Ovate— Obovate— Oval -Elliptical—Lanceolate. 


74 


LEAVES. 


may  be  seen  the  cleft  stipules  or  appendages  of  the  leaf. 
Linear,  as  the  grasses  and  Indian  corn,  (Fig,  32,  c,)  represents 
a  leaf  of  this  kind ;  it  is  sheathing,  or  encloses  the  stem  by  its 
base,  as  may  be  seen  at  d. 

Deltoid,  from  tjie  Greek  letter  delta  v  ;  this  kind  of  leaf  is 
represented  at  e,  Fig.  32 ;  the  Lombardy  poplar  affords  an 
example  of  the  same. 

Fig.  33. 


Sagittate  (from  sagittus  an  arrow),  or  arrow-shaped  leaf;  this 
is  represented  at  a,  Fig.  33 ;  the  Sagittaria,  an  aquatic  plant,  af- 
fords an  example  of  this  leaf. 

Acerose,  or  needle-shaped  ;  this  is  represented  at  b,  Fig.  33. 
Leaves  of  this  kind  are  mostly  clustered  together,  as  in  the 
pine  ;  they  are  subulate  or  pointed  like  a  shoemaker's  awl ;  they 
are  rigid  and  evergreen. 

Trees  with  acerose  leaves,  are  usually  natives  of  mountain- 
ous or  northern  regions ;  any  other  kind  of  leaves  would  in  these 
situations  be  overpowered  by  the  weight  of  snow  or  the  vio- 
lence of  tempests ;  but  these  admit  the  snow  and  wind  through 
their  interstices ;  their  many  points  or  edges,  presented  even  to 
a  gentle  breeze,  produce  a  deep  solemn  murmur  in  the  forest ; 
and  when  the  storm  is  abroad  and  the  tempest  high, 

"The loud  wind  through  the  forest  wakes, 


Linear — Sagittate — Acerose. 


LEAVES. 

With  sound  like  ocean's  roaring,  wild  and  deep, 
And  in  yon  gloomy  pines  strange  music  makes" — 


75 


Burns  in  describing  such  a  scene,  says  ;  "  this  is  my  best  sea- 
son for  devotion :  my  mind  is  wrapt  up  in  a  kind  of  enthusiasm 
to  Him  who,  in  the  pompous  language  of  the  Hebrew  bard, 
*  walks  on  the  wings  of  the  wind.' " 

Pinnatifid,  may  be  seen  at  Fig.  33,  d ;  leaves  of  this  form 
are  sometimes  finely  divided,  like  the  teeth  of  a  comb;  they  are 
then  said  to  be  pectinate. 

Lyrate,  differs  from  pinnatifid  in  having  its  terminating  seg- 
ment broader  and  more  circular.  (See  Fig.  33,  c.) 

Fig.  34. 


Palmate,  or  hand  shaped  (Fig.  84,  a) ;  one  species  of  the  pa&- 
sion  flower  (Passiflora  ccendia)  affords  a  good  example  of  this 
kind  of  leaf.  The  oblong  segments  like  fingers,  arise  from  a 
space  near  the  petiole,  which  may  be  considered  as  resembling 
the  palm  of  the  hand. 

Digitate,  or  fingered  leaf  (Fig.  34,  b),  differs  from  the  pal- 
mate leaf  in  having  no  space  resembling  the  palm  of  a  hand; 
but  several  distinct  leafets  arise  immediately  from  the  petiole, 
as  may  be  seen  in  the  Horse  Chesnut. 

Connate  (Fig.  34,  c) :  the  bases  of  opposite  leaves  are  united 
so  as  to  appear  one  entire  leaf. 

Pinnatifid— Lyrate— Palmate— Digitate— Connate. 


76 


LEAVES. 

Fig.  35. 


Lobed,  when  leaves  are  deeply  indented  at  their  margins 
they  are  said  to  be  lobed,  and  according  to  these  indentures, 
they  are  said  to  be  three  lobed,  four  lobed,  &c.  Fig.  35,  a,  rep- 
resents  a  three  lobed  leaf,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  Hepatica  tri- 
loba. 

Sinuate,  from  the  Latin  sinus,  a  bay ;  this  term  is  applied  to 
leaves  which  have  their  margins  indented  with  deep  roundish- 
divisions  as  at  b,  Fig.  65. 

Eniarginate,  denotes  a  slighter  indentation  as  at  c,  Fig.  35. 
Fig.  36. 

FlabcJ/fform,  or  fan 
shnped  (from  flabdlum, 
a  fan) ;  this  form  of  the 
leaf  is  seen  in  some  of  the 
palms.  In  China  they 
are  used  for  fans  and  sold 
to  foreign  merchants  for 
the  same  purpose.  Fig. 
36  is  a  representation  of 
the  dwarf-fan-palm  (Cha- 
mccrops  hu?nilis). 


Lobed    Sinuate  -  Emarginate— Flabelliform. 


LEAVES. 


77 


Fig.  37.  Stellated,  or   whorled  (from   Stella  a 

star),  this  term  is  applied  both  to  leaves 
and  flowers  and  relates  to  the  manner  m 
which  they  grow  around  the  stem,  as  in 
Fig.  37. 

Tubular,  there  are  many  varieties  of 
this  kind ;  the  leaf  of  the  onion  is  a  com- 
plete tube ;  the  Sarracenia  or  side-saddle 
flower  has  the  sides  of  its  leaf  united  form- 
ing a  cup,  which  is  found  filled  with  liquid, 
supposed  to  be  a  secretion  from  the  ves- 
sels of  the  plant.  In  some  countries  of  the  torrid  zone  is  the 
wild  pine,  Tillandsia,  the  leaves  of  which  are  hollowed  out  at 
their  base,  so  as  to  be  capable  of  containing  more  than  a  pint. 
A  traveller  says,  by  making  an  incision  into  the  base  of  this 
leaf  and  collecting  the  water  in  our  hats,  we  could  obtain  a 
sufficient  supply  for  the  relief  of  the  most  intense  thirst.  The 
fluid  is  not  a  secretion  from  the  plant,  but  is  deposited  during 
the  rainy  season. 

Fig.  38. 


The  pitcher-plant  (Nepenthes  distillatoria)  (Fig.  38),  affords  a 
most  singular  tubular-  receptacle  in  an  appendage  to  its  leaf;  this 
is  lanceolate  ;  beyond  the  apex  of  the  leaf  « ,  the  mid-rib  extends 
in  the  form  of  a  tendril ;  at  the  extremity  of  this  tendril  is  the 
cylindrical  cup  or  pitcher  b,  about  six  inches  in  length  and  one 
and  a  half  in  diameter  ;  it  is  furnished  with  a  lid,  c.  This  is 
usually  found  filled  with  pure  water,'  supposed  to  be  a  secre- 
tion from  the  plant.  Insects  which  creep  into  this  cup  are 
drowned  in  the  liquid,  except  a  small  species  of  shrimp  which 
lives  by  feeding  on  the  rest.  The  pitcher-plant  is  a  native  of 
Ceylon  where  it  is  called  monkey  cup,  on  account  of  its  being 
frequented  by  these  animals  for  the  purpose  of  quenching  their 
thirst. 

Compound  leaves. 

When  several  leafets  grow  on  one  petiole  the  whole  is  term- 
ed a  compound  leaf,  as  in  the  rose. 


Stellated — Tubular — Compound  leaves. 

7* 


78 


LEAVES. 


Fig.  39. 


Pinnate,  at  Fig.  39,  a,  represents  the  petiole  or  principal 
leaf  stalk  ;  from  this  spring  out  other  divisions,  each  bearing  a 
leafet;  $,  b,  represent  the  stipules  or  appendages,  the  \v  hole- 
taken  together  forms  one  compound  pinnate  leaf.  The  term 
pinnate  is  from  the  Latin  pinna,  a  wing  or  pinion. 

Binate  ;  when  two  leafets  only  form  the  petiole,  as  in  Fig. 
39,  c. 

Fig-  40.  Ternate; 

when  the 
leafets  a- 
rise  from 
the  petiole 
as  Fig.  40, 
a.  Biter. 
nate  is  a 

second  division  of  threes,  us  Fig.  40,  F.     Triternatc  is  a  third 
division  of  threes,  as  Fig.  40.  c. 
Fig.  41. 


Decompound,  when  a  pinnate  leaf  is  again  divided,  or  has 
its  leaves  twice  compound,  as  Fig.  41,  a.  At  I,  is  a  represent- 
ation  of  thrice  compound  leaves. 

Leaves  with  respect  to  Magnitude. 

Leaves  vary  in  size,  from  the  small  leaves  of  some  of  the 

Pinnate— Binate— Ternate— Biternate— Triternate — Decompound — Size  of 
leaves. 


LEAVES.  79 

forest-trees  of  our  climate,  to  the  spreading  Palms  and  Bananas 
of  the  torrid  zone.  As  we  approach  the  torrid  zone,  the  leaves 
increase  in  magnitude ;  we  can  however  scarcely  credit  the  re. 
ports  of  travellers,  who  say,  that  the  Talipot  tree,  in  the  Island 
of  Ceylon,  produces  leaves  of  such  size,  that  twenty  persons 
may  be  sheltered  by  one  single  leaf.  Although  this  account 
may  be  exaggerated,  there  is  no  doubt  of  the  fact,  that  the 
leaves  of  the  torrid  zone  are  of  a  wonderful  size ;  and  that 
whole  families  can  make  their  habitations  under  the  branches 
of  these  trees.  Here  we  see  the  care  of  that  ever  kind  Prov- 
idence, which,  in  countries  parched  the  greater  part  of  the 
year  by  a  vertical  sun,  has  formed  such  refreshing  shelters. 

Mungo  Park,  in  his  travels  in  Africa,  remarks  upon  the 
many  important  uses  of  palm  leaves  ;  serving  as  coverings  to 
cottages,  as  baskets  for  holding  fruit,-  and  umbrellas  for  defence 
against  rain  or  sun.  These  leaves  are  a  good  substitute  for 
paper,  and  were  so  used  by  the  eastern  nations.  Many  sup. 
pose  that  the  scriptures  of  the  Old  Testament  were  originally 
committed  to  palm  leaves. 

The  magnitude  of  leaves  often  bears  no  proportion  to  the 
size  of  the  plants  to  which  they  belong.  The  oak,  and  other 
forest  trees,  bear  leaves,  which  appear  very  diminutive  when 
compared  with  the  cabbage,  or  burdock. 

Leaves,  with  respect  to  Duration,  are, 

Caducous,  such  as  fall  before  the  "end  of  summer. 

Deciduous,  falling  at  the  commencement  of  winter ;  this  is 
the  case  with  most  vegetables,  as  far  as  30°  or  40°  from  the 
equator. 

Persistent,  or  permanent,  remaining  on  the  trees  amidst  the 
changes  of  temperature :  as,the  leaves  of  the  pine  and  box. 

Evergreen,  preserving  their  greenness  through  the  year ;  as 
the  fir-tree  and  pine,  and  generally  all  cone-bearing  and  resin- 
ous  trees;  these  change  their  leaves  annually,  but  the  young 
leaves  appearing  before  the  old  ones  decay,  the  plant  is  always 
green. 

In  our  climate  the  leaves  are  mostly  deciduous,  Teturningin 
autumn  to  their  original  dust,  and  enriching  the  soil  from  which 
they  had  derived  their  nourishment.  In  the  regions  of  the  tor- 
rid zone,  the  leaves  are  mostly  persistent  and  evergreen ;  they 
seldom  fade  or  decay  in  less  time  than  six  years ;  but  these 
same  trees,  removed  to  our  climate,  sometimes  become  annu- 
al plants,  loosing  their  foliage  every  year.  The  passion-flow- 
er is  an  evergreen  in  a  more  southern  climate. 

Palm-leaves  -  Leaves  not  corresponding  in  magnitude  to  the  size  of  the  plant 
— Duration. 


80  ANATOMY  OF  LEAVES. 

Leaves  with  respect  to  Colour. 

Leaves  have  not  that  brilliancy  of  colour  which  is  seen  in 
the  corolla  or  blossom ;  but  the  beauty  of  the  corolla,  like  most 
other  external  beauty,  has  but  a  transient  existence  ;  while  the 
less  showy  leaf  remains  fresh  and  verdant,  after  -the  flower  has 
withered  away. 

The  substance  of  leaves  is  so  constituted  as  to  absorb  all  the 
rays  of  light,  except  green ;  this  colour  is,  of  all  others,  best 
adapted  to  the  extreme  sensibility  of  our  organs  of  sight.  Thus, 
in  evident  accommodation  to  our  sense  of  vision,  the  ordinary 
dress  of  nature  is  of  the  only  colour  upon  which  our  eyes  can 
for  any  length  of  time  rest  without  pain. 

But  although  green  is  almost  the  only  colour  which  leaves 
reflect,  their  variety  of  shades  is  almost  innumerable. 

"  No  tree  in  all  the  grove  but  has  its  charms, 
Though  each  its  hue  peculiar ;  paler  some, 
And  of  a  wannish  grey ;  the  willow  such, 
And  poplar,  that  with  silver  lines  his  leaf; 
And  ash  far  stretching  his  umbrageous  arm : 
Of  deeper  green  the  elm  ;  and  deeper  still, 
Lord  of  the  woods,  the  long  surviving  oak."* 

The  contrast  between  their  shades,  in  forests,  where  different 
families  of  trees  are  grouped  together,  has  a  fine  effect,  when 
observed  at  such  a  distance,  as  to  give  a  view  of  the  whole  as 
forming  one  mass. 

A  small  quantity  of  iron,  united  to  oxygen  in  the  vegetable 
substance,  and  acted  upon  by  rays  of  light,  is  said  to  give  rise 
to  the  various  colours  of  plants. f  If  this  theory  is  correct,  the 
different  shades  of  colour  in  plants,  must  be  owing  to  the  differ- 
ent proportion  in  which  the  iron  and  oxygen  are  combined. 

To  quote  the  words  of  a  celebrated  Chemist,  "  When  Nature 
takes  her  pencil,  iron  is  the  colouring  she  uses." 


LECTURE  X. 

Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  Leaves — Their  use  in  the  Vege- 
table System. — Appendages  to  Plants. 

LEAVES  are  compared  to  the  lungs  of  animals  ;  they  are  or- 
gans  for  respiring,  perspiring,  and  absorbing.     When  leaves 

*  Cowper. 

t  This  idea  coincides  with  the  supposition,  that  the  green  colour  of  leaves  is 
changed  to  brown  by  the  loss  of  an  acid  principle ;  that  when  the  petals  of 
flowers  turn  from  purple  to  red,  they  have  an  increase  of  an  acid.  The  base  of 
this  acid  is  oxygen. 

Colour  of  leaves— Different  shades  in  the  colour  of  leaves — What  is  the  causo 
of  the  different  shades  of  colour  in  leaves  ?— The  use  of  leaves  in  the  vegetable 
economy. 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  LEAF.  81 

are  wanting,  as  in  the  Prickly  Pear,  (Cactus,}  the  green  sur- 
face of  the  stem  appears  to  perform  the  office  01  leaves.  If  you 
will  observe  a  dead  leaf  which  has  for  some  time  been  exposed 
to  the  action  of  the  atmosphere,  you  may  see  its  skeleton,  or 
frame  work ;  this  consists  of  various  fibres,  minutely  subdivided, 
which  originate  from  the  petiole.  This  skeleton  of  the  leaf 
may  be  examined  to  advantage,  after  boiling  the  leaves  slight- 
ly, or  rubbing  them  in  water ;  the  cuticle  or  skin  easily  sepa- 
rates, and  the  pulp,  or  cellular  texture,  may  then  be  washed 
out  from  between  the  meshes  of  the  veined  net-work  ;  thus  the 
most  minute  cords  of  the  different  vessels  become  perceptible, 
with  their  various  divisions  and  subdivisions ;  this  forms  what 
is  called  the  vascular  system.  (See  Fig.  42.) 

•    Fig-42'  In   external 

appearance  the 
organs  which 
compose  the 
vascular  system 
are  analogous 
to  the  bones 
which  consti- 
tute the  founda- 
5tion  of  the  ani- 
mal system,  but 
are  considered 

as  performing  the  office  of  veins  or  arteries.  They  are  found 
to  be  tubular ;  in  some  cases,  this  is  ascertained  by  the  naked 
eye  ;  in  others,  beautifully  illustrated  by  immersing  the  fibres 
of  the  leaf  in  some  coloured  liquid ;  on  taking  it  out,  they  are 
found  to  contain  internally  a  portion  of  the  liquid  ;  this  experi- 
ment proves  them  to  be  transparent  as  well  as  tubular. 

The  covering  of  this  frame-work  of  the  leaf  is  the  cuticle  and 
a  pulpy  substance,  called  the  parenchyma,  or  cellular  texture. 
Some  leaves  contain  much  more  of  this  than  others,  of  course 
they  are  more  pulpy  and  juicy ;.  it  is  found,  as  its  name  cellular 
would  denote,  to  consist  of  a  mass  of  little  cells,  various  in  size 
in  different  leaves ;  in  some,  with  the  most  powerful  magnifiers, 
the  cells  are  scarcely  perceptible ;  in  others,  they  may  be  seen 
with  the  naked  eye.  These  cells  are  of  important  use,  in  the 
secretion  and  communication  of  substances  through  the  leaf; 
and  may  thus  be  considered  as  a  kind  of  glands,  having  a  com- 
munication with  the  vascular  system. 

The  covering  of  the  leaf,  or  the  cuticle,*  guards  the  vascular 

*  The  cuticle  is  sometimes  called  epidermis,  from  epi,  around,  and  derma, 

Skeleton  of  the  leaf— Vascular  system — How  ascertained  to  be  tubular  and 
transparent — Cellular  texture— Cuticle, 


82  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  LEAF. 

system  and  cellular  texture  from  injury,  and  is  the  medium,  by 
which  the  leaf  performs  the  important  functions  of  absorbing 
nourishment,  and  throwing  off  such  substances  as  are  useless 
or  hurtful.  The  cuticle  is  sometimes  covered  with  downy  or 
hairy  glands,  which  seem  to  afford  security  against  changes  of 
weather ;  such  plants  are  capable  of  enduring  a  greater  degree 
of  heat  than  others.  In  some  cases  the  cuticle  is  covered  with 
a  transparent  varnish,  which  preserves  the  plant  from  injury 
by  too  much  moisture,  and  adds  to  the  beauty  of  the  leaves. 
The  trees  of  Abyssinia  and  some  other  countries,  which  are  sub- 
ject to  long  rains,  and  continued  moisture,  are  thus  shielded 
from  the  injurious  effects  of  the  weather. 

Some  of  the  uses  of  Leaves. 

Leaves  perform  a  very  important  office,  in  sheltering  and 
protecting  the  flowers  and  fruit ;  the  fact  of  their  inhaling  or 
absorbing  air,  is  thought  to  have  been  proved,  by  placing  a  plant 
under  an  exhausted  receiver,  permitting  the  leaves  only  to  re- 
ceive the  influence  of  air ;  the  plant  remained  thrifty  in  this 
situation  for  a  length  of  time  ;  but  as  soon  as  the  whole  plant 
was  placed  under  the  receiver,  it  withered  and  died.* 

The  upper  surface  of  leaves  is  usually  of  a  deeper  green,  and 
supposed  to  perform  a  more  important  part  in  respiration,  than 
the  under  surface.  The  upper  surface  repels  moisture  ;  you 
may  perceive  upon  a  cabbage  leaf  after  a  shower,  or  heavy 
dew,  that  the  moisture  is  collected  in  drops,  but  has  no  appear- 
ance of  being  absorbed  by  the  leaf.  It  has  been  found  that  the 
leaves  of  plants,  laid  with  their  upper  surface  upon  the  water, 
wither  almost  as  soon  as  if  exposed  to  the  air ;  although  the 
leaves  of  the  same  plants,  placed  with  their  under  surfaces  upon 
the  water,  retain  their  freshness  for  some  days.  But  few  among 
the  vegetable  tribes  are  destitute  either  of  leaves,  or  green  stems, 
which  answer  as  a  substitute.  The  Monotropa,  or  Indian  pipe, 
is  of  pure  white,  as  if  made  of  wax ;  the  mushrooms  are  also 
destitute  of  any  green  herbage.  It  is  not  known  in  what  man- 
ner  the  deficiency  of  leaves  is  made  up  to  these  vegetables. 

The  period  in  which  any  species  of  plant  unfolds  its  leaves,  is 
termed  its  Frondescence.  Linnaeus  paid  much  attention  to  this 

skin ;  the  true  skin  being  not  the  outer  covering,  but  a  cellular  substance  be- 
neath; thus  the  thin  skin  upon  the  hand  which  so  easily  becomes  rough,  is  the 
cuticle,  or  epidermis  (sometimes  called  the  scarf-skin),  while  the  real  skin  is 
below. 

*  I  give  this  experiment  on  the  authority  of  Barton;  but  although  the  respi- 
ration of  leaves  seems  not  to  be  doubted,  this  experiment  may  not  be  thought  a 
fair  one  ;  for  it  would  seem  very  difficult,  to  place  a  plant  under  a  receiver,  with 
the  leaves  exposed  to  the  air,  without  at  the  same  time  admitting  any  air  into 
the  receiver. 

Important  office  of  the  leaf— Few  plants  destitute  of  leaves— Frondescence. 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  LEAF.  •      83 

subject ;  he  stated  as  the  result  of  his  investigations,  that  the 
opening  of  the  leaf  buds  of  the  Birch  tree,  (Betula,)  was  the 
most  proper  time  for  the  sowing  of  barley.  The  Indians  of  our 
country  had  an  opinion,  that  the  best  time  for  planting  Indian 
corn,  was  when  the  leaves  of  the  White  oak,  (QUERCUS  alba,) 
first  made  their  appearance ;  or  according  to  their  expression, 
are  of  the  size  of  a  squirrel's  ears. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  phenomena  of  leaves,  is  their 
irritability,  or  power  of  contraction,  upon  coming  in  contact 
with  other  substances.  Compound  leaves  possess  this  property 
in  the  greatest  degree  ;  as  the  sensitive  plant,  (MIMOSA  sensitiva :) 
and  the  American  sensitive  plant,  (CASSIA  nictitans :)  these 
plants,  if  the  hand  is  brought  near  them,  seem  agitated  as  if 
with  fear,  but  as  plants  are  destitute  ^of  intelligence,  we  must 
attribute  this  phenomenon  to  some  physical  cause,  perhaps  the 
warmth  of  the  hand,  which  produces  the  contractions,  and  dila- 
tations of  the  leaves. 

The  effect  of  light  upon  leaves  is  very  apparent,  plants  being 
almost  uniformly  found  to  present  their  upper  surfaces  to  the 
side  on  which  the  greatest  quantity  of  light  is  to  be  found.  It 
has  already  been  observed  that  plants  throw  off  oxygen  gas ; 
but  for  this  purpose  they  require  the  agency  of  light. 

Carbonic  acid  gas  is  the  food  of  plants;  this  consists  of  car- 
bon  and  oxygen,  and  is  decomposed  by  the  agency  of  light ;  the 
carbon  becomes  incorporated  with  the  vegetable,  forming  the 
basis  of  its  substance,  while  the  oxygen  is  exhaled  or  thrown 
off  into  the  atmosphere. 

Many  plants  close  their  leaves  at  a  certain  period  of  the  day, 
and  open  them  at  another ;  almost  every  garden  contains  some 
plants,  in  which  this  phenomenon  may  be  observed ;  it  is  par- 
ticularly remarkable  in  the  sensitive  plant,  and  the  tamarind 
tree.  This  folding  up  of  the  leaves  at  particular  periods,  has 
been  termed  the  sleep  of  plants;  it  may  seem  a  singular  term  to 
apply  to  plants ;  but  a  celebrated  botanist*  remarks,  "  this  fold- 
ing up  of  the  leaves  may  be  as  useful  to  the  vegetable  constitu- 
tion, as  real  sleep  is  to  the  animal."  Linnaeus  was  led  to  ob- 
serve the  appearance  of  plants  in  the  night,  from  a  circum- 
stance which  occurred  in  raising  the  Lotus  plant ;  he  found 
one  morning  some  very  thrifty  flowers,  but  at  night  they  had 
disappeared ;  this  excited  his  attention,  and  he  began  to  watch 
the  plants  through  the  night,  in  order  to  observe  the  period  of 
their  unfolding.  He  was  thus  led  to  investigate  the  appearance 
of  other  plants  in  the  night,  and  to  observe  their  different  man- 
ner of  sleep.  He  found  that  some  folded  their  leaves  together, 

*  Sir  J.  E.  Smith. 

Irritability— Effect  oflight— Sleep  of  plants. 


84  PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  LEAF- 

others  threw  them  back  upon  their  stems,  and  exhibited  a  va- 
riety of  appearances.  This  phenomenon  has  been  attributed 
to  the  absence  of  light.  A  curious  experiment  was  made  by 
a  botanist,  who  placed  the  sensitive  plant  in  a  dark  cave,  at 
midnight,  and  then  lighted  up  the  cave  with  lamps  ;  the  leaves 
which  were  before  folded  up,  suddenly  expanded,  and  when  on 
the  following  day  the  lights  were  extinguished,  the  leaves  again 
closed. 

The  period  at  which  the  leaves  fall  off  is  termed  the  DefoU- 
ation*  of  the  plant ;  about  the  middle  of  autumn,  the  leaves  of  all 
annual,  and  of  many  perennial  plants,  gradually  lose  their  vi- 
gour, change  their  colour,  and  at  length  fall  from  their  stems. 

The  "  fall  of  the  leaf"  may  be  referred  tb  two  causes;  the 
death  of  the  leaf,  and  the  vital  action  of  the  parts  to  which  it  is 
attached.  If  a  whole  tree  is  killed  by  lightning,  or  any  sudden 
cause,  the  leaves  will  adhere  to  the  dead  branches,  because  the 
latter  have  not  the  energy  to  cast  them  off.  The  richness  and 
variety  of  colouring  exhibited  about  the  end  of  autumn,  by  our 
groves  and  forests,  is  splendid  beyond  the  power  of  the  painter 
to  imitate.  Yellow,  red,  and  brown,  are  the  most  common 
colours  of  the  dying  leaf;  but  these  colours  vary  from  the 
brightest  scarlet,  and  the  deepest  crimson,  intermixed  with  every 
shade  of  yellow,  from  the  deep  orange,  to  the  pale  straw 
colour. 

Although  we  have  said  considerable  upon  leaves,  yet,  we  have 
merely  touched  upon  the  most  important  circumstances  with  re- 
spect  to  them.  You  will,  perhaps,  be  induced  to  pay  piore  at- 
tention  than  formerly  to  them,  in  their  different  stages  ;  from 
their  situation  in  the  bud,  to  their  full  growth  and  perfection ; 
and  will  feel  a  new  interest  in  their  change  of  colour,  when  you 
understand  something  of  the  philosophy  of  this  change ;  even 
the  dry  skeletons  of  leaves,  which  the  blasts  of  autumn  strew 
around  us,  may  not  only  afford  a  direct  moral  lesson,  but,  indu- 
cing you  to  examine  their  structure,  lead  you  to  admire  and 
adore  the  power  which  formed  them. 

Appendages  to  Plants. 

Plants  have  a  set  of  organs,  the  uses  of  which  are  less  appa- 
rent than  those  we  have  been  considering ;  but  we  should  not 
infer,  because  the  design  for  which  they  have  been  formed  is  in 
some  measure  concealed  from  us,  that  they  were  made  for  no 
purpose,  or  exist  by  mere  accident ;  let  us  rather  with  humility, 

*  From  de,  signifying  to  deprive  of,  and/oZtum,  leaf. 

Defoliation— Fall  of  the  leaf— Concluding  remark— Reflections  upon  the  use 
of  certain  organs. 


APPENDAGES  TO  PLANTS.  83 

acknowledge  that  this  blindness  must  be  owing  to  the  limited 
nature  of  our  own  faculties.  It  would  be  impious  for  us  to  ima- 
gine, that  all  the  works  of  God  which  we  cannot  comprehend, 
are  useless. 

The  organs  to  which  we  now  refer  are  called  by  the  gene- 
ral name  of  appendages ;  they  consist  of  seven  different  kinds, 
Stipules,  Prickles,  Thorns,  Glands,  Stings,  Scales,  Tendrils, 
Pubescence,  and  Bracts. 

Fig- 43.  1st.    Stipules,    are 

membranous  or  leafy 
scales,  usually  in  pairs, 
at  or  near  the  base  of 
the  leaf  or  petiole.  The 
stipules  furnish  charac- 
ters used  in  botanical 
distinctions.  They  are 
various  in  their  forms 
and  situations,  found  in  most  plants,  but  sometimes  wanting. 
In  the  garden  violet,  VIOLA  TRICOLOR  (Fig.  43,  a,  a),  the  sti- 
pules are  of  that  form  called  lyrate  pinnatifid,  while  the  true 
leaf  (#),  is  oblong  and  crenate.  The  most  natural  situation  of 
the  stipules  is  in  pairs,  one  on  each  side  of  the  base  of  the  foot- 
stalk, as  in  the  sweet  pea  ;  some  stipules  fall  off  almost  as  soon 
as  the  leaves  are  expanded,  but  in  general,  they  remain  as  long 
as  the  leaves. 

2d.  Prickles,  arise  from  the  bark;  they  are  sometimes 
straight,  sometimes  hooked,  and  sometimes  forked.  They  are 
usually  found  upon  the  stem,  as  in  the  rose ;  but  in  some  cases, 
they  cover  the  petiole,  as  in  the  raspberry ;  in  others,  they  are 
found  upon  the  leaf  or  the  calyx,  and  in  some  instances,  upon 
the  berry ;  as  in  the  gooseberry. 

3d.  Thorns,  seem  to  be  a  kind  of  short  pointed  stem,  easily 
distinguished  from  prickles,  as  they  grow  from  the  woody  part 
of  the  plant,  while  the  prickle  proceeds  only  from  the  bark.  On 
stripping  the  bark  from  a  rose  bush,  the  prickles  will  come 
away  with  it,  but  let  the  same  experiment  be  made  with  a  thorn 
bush,  and  although  the  bark  may  be  separated,  the  thorn  will 
still  remain  projecting  from  the  wood. 

Different  kinds  of  appendages— Stipules— Prickles— Thorns— Difference  be- 
tween the  thorn  and  the  prickle. 


APPENDAGES  TO  PLANTS, 


In  this  drawing  (Fig.  44V  you  will  observe  the  thorn  (a)  to 
remain  on  the  stem,  while  the  bark  (b)  has  been  peeled  off.  In 
the  prickle  (c)  the  whole  appears  separated  from  the  plant. 
The  thorns  in  some  plants  have  been  known  to  disappear  by 
cultivation.  The  gr.eat  Linnseus  imagined  that  in  such  cases, 
the  trees  were  divested  of  their  natural  ferocity  and  became 
tame.  You  may  smile  at  such  a  strange  idea,  but  even  great 
minds  have  their  weaknesses ;  when  persons  become  enthusias- 
tic in  any  science,  they  are  in  danger  of  fancying  analogies  or 
msomblances,  which  exist  only  in  their  own  minds.  A  more 
rational  opinion  is  given  by  another  botanist,  viz. — that  thorns 
are  in  reality  buds,  which  a  more  favourable  situation  converts 
into  luxuriant  branches.  But  in  some  cases  they  do  not  disap- 
pear even  under  circumstances  favourable  to  vegetation. 
Thorns  have  been  compared  to  the  horns  of  animals. 

4th.  Glands  are  roundish  minute  appendages,  sometimes 
called  tumours  or  swellings ;  they  contain  a  liquid  secretion 
which  is  supposed  to  give  to  many  plants  their  fragrance. 
They  are  sometimes  attached  to  the  base  of  the  leaf,  some- 
times, they  occur  in  the  substance  of  leaves  ;  as  in  the  lemon 
and  myrtle,  causing  them  to  appear  dotted  when  held  to  the 
light.  They  are  found  on  the  petioles  of  the  passion  flower, 
and  between  the  teeth  or  notches  of  the  leaves  of  many  plants. 

5th.  Stings  are  hair-like  substances,  causing  pain  by  an  acrid 
liquor,  which  is  discharged  upon  their  being  compressed ;  they 
are  hollow,  slender,  and  pointed,  as  in  the  nettle. 

6th.  Scales  are  substances,  in  some  respects  resembling  the 
coarse  scales  of  a  fish ;  they  are  often  green,  sometimes  colour, 
ed,  and  are  found  upon  all  parts  of  vegetables,  upon  the  roots 
-of  bulbous  plants,  and  upon  the  stems  and  branches  of  other 
plants.  They  are  imbricated  upon  the  calyxes  of  most  of  the 
compound  flowers.  You  have  seen  in  buds,  how.  important  the 
scales  are  to  protect  the  embryo  plant  during  the  winter.  Ca- 
lyxes surround  the  flowers  of  grasses,  under  the  name  of  glumes. 
Scales  envelope  and  sustain  the  stamens  and  fruit  of  the  pine, 
oak,  chesnut,  &c. 

Thorns  in  some  cases  made  to  disappear— Glands— Stings— Scales. 


APPENDAGES  TO  PLANTS. 


87 


Fig.  45. 

7th.  Tendrils,  or  claspers,  thread-like,  or 
filiform  appendages,  by  which  weak  stem* 
attach  themselves  to  other  bodies  for  sup- 
port ;  they  usually  rise  from  the  branches, 
in  some  cases  from  the  leaf,  and  rarely 
from  the  leaf  stalk  or  flower  stalk.  You 
have  here  the  representation  (Fig.  45)  of 
a  tendril.  Tendrils  are  very  important, 
and  characteristic  appendages  to  many 
plants.  In  the  trumpet  flower  and  ivy,  the 
tendrils  serve  for  roots,  planting  themselves 
into  the  bark  of  trees,  or  in  the  walls  of 
buildings.  In  the  cucumber  and  some  other 
plants,  tendrils  serve  both  for  sustenance 
and  shade.  Many  of  the  papilionaceous, 
or  pea  blossom  plants,  have  twining  ten- 
drils, which  wind  to  the  right  and  back 
again.  Among  vegetables  which  have  ten- 
drils, has  been  discovered  that  property, 
which  some^have  called  the  instinctive  in- 
telligence *of  plants.  A  poetical  botanist 
represents  the  tendrils  of  the  gourd  and 
cucumber,  as  "  creeping  away  in  disgust  from  the  fatty  fibres 
of  the  neighbouring  olive."  The  manner  in  which  tendrils 
stretch  themselves  forward  to  grasp  some  substances,  while 
they  shrink  from  others,  is  mcTeed  astonishing,  but  instead  of 
imagining  that  they  have  a  preference  for  some  and  a  dislike 
for  other  objects,  it  is  much  more  philosophical  to  conclude 
that  these  effects  arise  from  physical  causes,  which  may,  here- 
after, be  discovered.  It  has  been  ascertained  by  experiments, 
that  the  tendrils  of  the  vine,  and  some  other  plants,  recede  from 
the  light,  and  seek  opaque  bodies.  The  fact  with  respect  to 
leaves  is  directly  the  reverse  of  this,  for  they  turn  themselves 
round  to  seek  the  light.. 

Some  plants  creep  by  their  tendrils  to  a  very  great  height, 
even  to  the  tops  of  the  loftiest  trees  ;  and  seem  to  cease  as- 
cending only  because  they  can  find  nothing  higher  to  climb. 
One  of  our  most  beautiful  climbing  plants  is  the  CLEMATIS  vif- 
ginica,  or  virgin's  bower,  which  has  flowers  of  a  brilliant 
whiteness. 

8th.  Pubescence  includes  all  down,  hairs,  woolliness,  or  silk- 
mess  of  plants.  The  pubescence  of  plants  varies  in  different 
soils,  and  with  different  modes  of  cultivation.  The  species  in 
some  genera  of  plants  are  distinguished  by  the  direction  of  the 


Tendrils— Recede  from  the  light— Pubescence. 


88 


ORGANS  OF  FRUCTIFICATION. 


hairs.  The  microscope  is  sometimes  necessary  in  determining 
with  precision  the  existence  and  direction  of  the  pubescence. 
It  has  been  suggested  that  these  appendages  may  be  for  similar 
purposes  as  the  furs,  hairs,  and  bristles  of  animals  ;  to  defend 
the  plants  from  cold,  and  injuries  from  other  causes. 
Fig.  46. 

9th.  The  Bract  is  a  leaf  among  or 
near  the  flowers,  different  from  the 
leaves  of  the  plant.  You  may  in  this 
branch  (Fig.  46)  observe  the  differ- 
ence between  the  real  leaves  (b,  'b) 
and  the  bract  (a) ;  the  former  being 
cordate  and  crenate,  the  latter  lanceo- 
late and  entire. 

In  some  plants,  as  in  several  species 
of  sage,  the  transition  from  leaves  to 
bracts  is  so  gradual,  as  to  render  it 
difficult  to  distinguish  between  them, 
and  a  considerable  part  of  the  foliago 
is  composed  of  the  bracts.  In  some 
plants,  as  the  crown  imperial,  the  stem 
is  terminated  by  a  number  of  large  and 
conspicuous  bracts.  These  appen- 
dages are  sometimes  mistaken  for  the 
calyx.  Bracts  are  either  green  or 
coloured,  deciduous  or  persistent.  The 
Orchis  tribe  have  green  leaf-bracts. 
No  plants  of  the  class  Tetradynamia 
have  bracts. 

We  have,  in  regular  order,  considered  the  first  of  the  two 
classes  of  vegetable  organs",  viz  :  such  as  tend  to  the  support 
and  growth  of  the  plant,  including  root,  stem,  leaf  and  append- 
ages ;  we  are  soon  to  enter  upon  the  class  of  organs  whose 
chief  use  appears  to  be  that  of  bringing  forward  the  fruit,  or 
the  organs  of  reproduction. 


LECTURE  XL 

Calyx. 

We  are  now  to  consider  the  second  division  of  vegetable  or- 
gans, viz. :  such  as  serve  for  the  reproduction  of  the  plant,  usu- 
ally called  organs  of  fructification.  Their  names  were  consid- 
ered, when  commencing  the  analysis  of  flowers ;  but  we  aro 


Bract — Difference  between  the  real  leaf  and  the  bract — Recapitulation— S»» 
eond  division  of  vegetable  organs. 


CALYX.  80 

now  to  examine  them  with  more  minute  attention,  and  to  re- 
mark upon  their  different  uses  in  the  vegetable  econo'my. 

You  are  no  doubt  pleased  to  have  arrived  at  that  part  of  the 
plant,  which  is  the  ornament  of  the  vegetable  kingdom.  Flow- 
ers are  delightful  to  every  lover  of  nature ;  a  boquet  or  even 
the  simplest  blossom,  presented  by  a  friend,  interests  the  heart.* 
How  many  pleasant  thoughts  are  awakened  by  the  fresh  and 
perfumed  incense  which  is  offered  by  flowers ;  their  odour  has 
been  poetically  termed  the  language  by  which  they  hold  com- 
munion with  our  minds.  Females  are  usually  fond  of  flowers ; 
bilt  until  recently,  the  greater  number  have  only  viewed  them 
as  beautiful  objects,  delighting  the  senses  by  their  odour  and 
fragrance  ;  without  being  aware  that  these  objects,  lovely  as 
they  seemed,  might  be  rendered  doubly  interesting,  by  a  scien- 
tific knowledge  of  the  relations  and  uses  of  their  various  parts. 
Even  at  the  present  period,  there  are  those  who  spend  years  in 
cultivating  plants,  ignorant  of  their  botanical  characters,  when 
a  few  hours  study  might  unfold  to  them  the  beautiful  arrange- 
ment of  Linnaeus,  and  open  to  their  astonished  minds  a  world 
of  wonders. 

Although  every  part  of  a  plant  offers  an  interesting  subject 
for  study,  the  beauty  of  the  blossom,  seems  by  association,  to 
heighten  the  pleasure  of  scientific  research.  Flowers  are  in- 
deed lovely,  but  like  youth  and  beauty  they  are  fading  and 
transient ;  they  are,  however,  destined  for  a  higher  object  than 
a  short  lived  admiration ;  for,  to  them,  is  assigned  the  important 
office  of  producing  and  nourishing  the  fruit :  like  them  may 
you  so  improve  the  bloom  of  life,  that  when  youth  and  beauty 
shall  have  faded  away,  your  mind  may  exhibit  that  fruit,  which 
it  is  the  important  business  of  the  present  season  to  protect  and 
nurture. 

The  parts  of  the  flower,  or  the  organs  of  fructification  are 
the  following, 

Calyx,  Pericarp, 

Corolla,  Seed, 

Stamen,  Receptacle. 
Pistil, 

Calyx. 

The  Calyx  is  frequently  wanting ;  as  in  the  tulip.  The  co- 
rolla is  also  wanting  in  many  plants ;  as,  in  most  of  the  forest 
trees  which,  to  a  careful  observer,  may  seem  to  produce  no  flow- 
er, but  the  presence  of  a  stamen  and  pistil,  is  in  botany  consider- 
ed as  constituting  a  perfect  flower.  These  two  organs  are  es- 
sential to  the  perfection  of  the  fruit ;  and  when  a  flower  is  des- 

Flowers  delightful— Many  who  cultivate  thorn  ignorant  of  their  botanical 
characters — Flowers  analogous  to  youth — Organs  of  fructification — Calyx, 
sometimes  wanting. 

8* 


90  CALYX. 

titute  either  of  stamens  or  pistils,  it  is  termed  imperfect.  A 
flower  is  said  to  be  incomplete  when  any  of  the  seven  organs  of 
fructification  are  wanting. 

The  word  Calyx  is  derived  from  the  Greek,  and  literally 
signifies  a  cup;  it  is  the  outer  cover  of  the  corolla,  and  usually 
green ;  when  not  green  it  is  said  to  be  coloured.  This  organ  is 
an  expansion  of  the  bark  of  the  flower-stalk,  as  appears  from 
its  colour  and  texture.  The  calyx  usually  envelopes  the  corol- 
la, previous  to  its  expansion,  and  afterwards  remains  below  or 
around  its  base.  Sometimes  the  calyx  consists  of  one  leaf  on- 
ly,  it  is  then  called  monophyllous ;  when  it  consists  of  several 
distinct  leaves,  it  is  called  potyphyllous ;  when  one  calyx  is  sur- 
rounded by  another,  it  is  double ;  when  one  calyx  surrounds 
many  plants,  it  is  common. 

In  the  calyx  are  three  parts,  very  distinct  in  calyxes  which 
are  long  and  cylindric;  they  are,  1st.  the  tube  which  commences 
at  the  base,  or  the  top  of  the  peduncle;  "2nd.  the  throat,  above 
the  tube;  and  3d.  the  mouth,  or  the  upper  and  expanded  part; 
the  tube  of  the  calyx  is  cylindric  in  the  pink,  and  prismatic  in 
the  stramonium, 

The  position  of  the  calyx  with  respect  to  the  germ,  offers  an 
important  mark  of  distinction  between  different  genera,  a  ml  al- 
so between  different  natural  families  of  plants.  The  calyx  is 
said  to  be  superior  when  it  is  situated  on  the  summit  of  the  germ 
as  in  the  apple ;  it  is  inferior  when  situated  below  the  germ,  as 
in  the  pink.  In  many  plants  the  calyx  is  neither  superior  or 
inferior,  but  is  situated  around  the  germ. 

When  the  calyx  drops  oif  before  the  flower  fully  expands,  it 
is  called  caducous;  the  petals  of  the  poppy  are,  at  first,  enclosed 
in  a  calyx  of  two  large  green  leaves,  but  these  fall  off  before 
the  flower  is  fullblown.  When  the  calyx  withers  and  drops  off 
with  the  corolla  it  is  called  deciduous.  In  many  plants  it  re. 
mains  until  the  fruit  is  matured ;  it  is  then  called  persistent.  In 
a  pea- pod,  for  example,  the  calyx  may  be  seen  as  perfect  as  it 
was  in  the  blossom.  In  an  apple  or  a  pear,  the  dried  leaves  of 
the  calyx  may  b£  seen  on  the  tops  of  the  fruit;  this  shows  that 
the  calyx  was  superior. 

According  to  the  divisions  of  Linnaius  there  are  seven  kinds 
of  calyxes;  viz. 

Perianth,  G'nme, 

Incolucrum,  Calyptra, 

Amnit,  Volva. 
Spalha, 

Perianth.  This  term  is  derived  from  the  two  Greek  words 
peri,  around,  and  anthos,  flower.  This  is  the  only  real  calyx 
or  cup,  as  the  term  cup  does  not  properly  apply  to  the  other 

Description  of  the  calyx -Parts  of  the  calyx -Position  with  respect  to  the 
germ— Duration— Different  kinds  of  calyxes— Perianth. 


CALYX. 


91 


kinds.  A  good  example  of  the  perianth  calyx  is  presented  in 
the  rose  where  it  is  Mr?i-form,  with  divisions  at  the  top  resem- 
bling small  leaves.  In  the  pink,  the  perianth  is  long  and  tubu- 
lar, having  the  border  dentate  or  toothed.  The  holly. hock,  hi- 
biscus,  and  many  other  plants  have  a  double  perianth.  The 
general  remarks  which  were  made  upon  the  calyx  may  be  con- 
sidered as  chiefly  applicable  to  the  perianth. 

Involucrum.  This  term  is  derived  from  the  Latin,  involve, 
to  wrap  up ;  this  kind  of  calyx  is  usually  found  at  the  base  of 
an  umbel,  as  in  the  carrot.  It  is  said  to  be  universal,  when  it 
belongs  equally  to  the  whole  of  an  aggregate  flower ;  and  par- 
tial when  it  encloses  one  floret,  which,  with  others,  constitutes 
a  compound  or  aggregate  flower.  The  term  involucrum  is  al- 
so applied  to  the  membranous  covering  in  the  fructification  of 
ferns. 

Ament  or  catkin.  Is  a  kind  of  calyx,  by  some  classed  as  a 
mode  of  inflorescence  ;  it  consists  of  many  chaffy  scales,  ranged 
along  a  thread-like  stalk  or  receptacle ;  each  scale  protects  ono 
or  more  of  the  stamens  or  pistils,  the  whole  forming  one  ag- 
gregate flower.  The  Ament  is  common  in  forests  trees ;  as  in 
the  oak  and  chesnut ;  and  is  also  found  in  the  willow  and  pop- 
lar. In  some  trees,  the  staminate  flowers  are  enclosed  in  an 
ament,  and  the  pistillate  in  a  perianth. 

Spatha,  signifies  a  sheath.  It  is  that  kind  of  calyx  which 
first  encloses  the  flower,  and  when  it  expands,  bursts  lengthwise 
and  often  appears  at  some  distance  below  it.  The  wild  turnip 
or  ARUM,  furnishes  an  example  of  this  kind  of  calyx,  enclosing 
a  kind  of  inflorescence  called  a  spadix.  From  the  peculiar  ap- 
pearance of  the  spadix,  as- it  stands  up  surrounded  by  the  spa- 
tha,  it  is  sometimes  called  Jack  in  the  pulpit.  The  spatha  is 

common  in  many  of  our 
cultivated  exotics,  as  in  tho 
daffodil  (NARCISSUS)  where 
it  appears  brownish  and 
withered,  after  the  full  ex- 
pansion of  the  flower. 
You  see  here  a  representa- 
tion (Fig.  47),  of  the  spa- 
tha of  the  arum  (&),  and  of 
the  Narsissus  (c).  In  the 
EgyptianLily,  the  spatha  is 
white  and4  permanent  and 
the  stamens  and  pistils  grow 
separately  upon  the  spadix. 


Fig.  47. 


Involucrum — Ament — Spatha 


92  CALYX. 

Palms  have  a  spadix  which   is  branched,  and  often  bear*   a 
great  quantity  of  fruit. 

Fig.  48. 


Glume,  is  from  the  latin  word  gluma,  a  husk.  This  is  the 
calyx  of  the  grasses,  and  grass  like  plants.  In  the  oat,  and 
wheat,  it  forms  the  chaff,  a  part  which  is  thrown  away  as 
worthless.  In  the  oat  (Fig.  48),  the  glume  calyx  is  composed 
of  two  pieces  or  valves  ;  in  some  kinds  of  grain,  of  but  one,  in 
others  of  more  than  two  valves.  To  the  glume  belongs  the 
awn  or  beard.  The  corolla  of  grasses  is  husky,  like  the  calyx, 
and  is  sometimes  considered  as  a  part  of  it.  A  French  Bota- 
nist says,  that  there  is  in  the  grasses,  neither  calyx  nor  corolla, 
that  these  scales  are  only  membranous  bracts.  He  thinks,  the 
confusion  with  respect  to  those  parts  has  tended  to  render  the 
study  of  grasses  difficult. 

Calyptra.  This  term  is  derived  from  the  Greek,  and  signifies 
a  veil.  It  is  the  cap,  or  hood  of  pistillate  mosses,  resembling 
inform  and  position  the  extinguisher  of  a  candle. 

Volva,  or  curtain ;  the  ring  or  wrapper  of  the  Fungus  plants. 
It  first  encloses  the  head  of  the  Fungus,  afterwards  bursts  and 
contracts ;  remaining  on  the  stems,  or  at  the  root. 

We  have  now  considered  the  different  kinds  of  calyx  ;  we 
find  that  the  calyx  is  not  essential,  since  it  is  wanting  in  some 
plants,  but  its  presence  adds  to  the  completeness  of  the  flower; 
and  in  some  cases  it  is  the  most  showy  part ;  as  in  the  Lady's- 
ear-drop,  where  it  is  of  a  bright  scarlet  colour,  and  the  Egyp- 
tian Lily,  where  it  is  pure  white. 

The  calyx  is  of  use  in  protecting  the  other  parts  of  the  flow- 
er, before  they  expand,  and  afterwards  supporting  them,  by 
keeping  all  in  their  proper  position. 

Pinks  having  petals  with  long  and  slender  feet,  which  would 
drop  or  break  without  support,  have  a  calyx.  Tulips  having 

Glume—Calyptra— Volva— Uses  of  the  calyx. 


COROLLA.  93 

firm  petals,  and  each  one  resting  upon  a  broad  strong  basis, 
are  able  to  support  themselves,  and  they  have  no  calyx. 

In  some  plants  the  calyx  serves  as  a  seed-vessel ;  as  in  the 
order  Gymnospermia,  of  the  class  Didynamia,  where  there  are 
four  naked  seeds  lying  in  the  bottom  of  the  calyx. 


LECTURE  XII. 

Corolla. 

The  term  corolla,  or  corol,  is  derived  from  the  Latin,  corona, 
a  crown  or  chaplet.  As  the  calyx  is  formed  by  a  continuation 
of  the  fibres  of  the  outer  bark,  the  corolla  is  a  continuation  of 
the  cellular  integument,  or  inner  coat  of  the  same.  The  tex- 
ture of  the  corolla  is  delicate,  soft,  watery,  and  coloured.  It 
exhales  carbonic  acid  gas,  but  does  not  give  off  oxygen,  either 
in  the  dark,  or  when  acted  upon  by  light ;  as  is  the  case  with 
the  green  parts  of  plants.  The  cuticle  or  outward  covering 
of  the  corolla  is  of  an  extremely  fine  texture.  The  rich  and 
variegated  colours  of  flowers,  are  owing  to  the  delicate  organi- 
zation of  the  corolla ;  and  to  this  cause,  its  transient  duration 
may  also  be  attributed. 

The  corolla  exhibits  every  variety  of  colour,  except  black  ; 
florists  sometimes  present  us  with  what  they  term  black  roses, 
and  we  see  some  other  flowers,  which  approach  this  colour,  yet 
none  are  perfectly  black ;  the  darkest  being  but  a  very  deep 
shade  of  purple. 

Corollas  are  white,  yellow,  blue,  violet,  &c. ;  in  some,  dif- 
ferent colours  are  delicately  shaded,  and  blended  ;  in  others, 
they  meet  abruptly,  without  any  intermediate  tint. 

The  colour  of  the  corolla,  in  the  same  species,  often  varies 
without  any  assignable  cause.  This  fact  is  strikingly  illustra- 
ted in  the  Four  o'clock,  (MIRABILIS,)  the  flowers  cf  which  are 
sometimes  of  a  pale  yellow,  sometimes  a  bright  crimson,  and 
often  richly  variegated.  Man  does  not  create  these  varieties; 
they  are  the  result  of  circumstances  unperceived  by  him,  and 
not  under  his  controul ;  the  florist  watches  these  changes,  and  as 
far  as  possible,  avails  himself  of  them  in  the  production  of  new 
beauties  in  the  vegetable  kingdom. 

The  corolla,  before  blossoming,  is  folded  in  the  calyx,  as  the 
leaves  are  within  the  scales  of  the  leaf-bud,  and  the  whole  is 
then  called  the  flower  bud.  In  most  cases  the  calyx  and  corol- 

Corolla — Derivation  of  the  term — A  continuation  of  the  cellular  integument 
— Description  of  the  corolla — Colour — Its  situation  before  expanding. 


94  COROLLA. 

la  are  so  distinctly  marked,  that  it  is  perfectly  easy  to  distin- 
guish them;  the  colour  usually  constitutes  a  very  striking  mark 
of  difference ;  the  calyx  being  ordinarily  green,  and  the  corolla 
of  a  more  lively  hue,  but  the  colour  is  not  always  a  criterion. 
In  some  cases  the  calyx  is  beautifully  coloured.  In  the  Fi  SCHIA, 
(Lady's  ear-drop,)  the  calyx  is  of  a  bright  scarlet;  you  would, 
no  doubt,  at  first  think  it  to  be  the  corolla ;  but  if  you  remove 
the  scarlet  coat,  you  may  see,  wrapped  around  the  eight  stamens, 
a  purple  covering ;  on  taking  off  each  piece  carefully,  you  will 
find  four  petals,*  as  distinct  as  the  petals  of  a  rose ;  you  will 
then  see  that  the  outer  covering  must  be  the  calyx. 

Linnaeus,  made  the  following  distinction  between  the  corolla 
and  the  calyx ;  viz.  that  the  corolla  has  its  petals  alternate  with 
the  stamens,  and  the  calyx  has  its  leafets  arranged  opposite  to 
them.  This  rule  is  not  found  to  be  invariable ;  it  has  led  some 
botanists  to  call  that  the  corolla,  which  others  have  named  the 
calyx.  It  seems  as  if  nature  had  not  placed  any  absolute  limits 
between  these  two  organs. 

The  corolla  sometimes  falls  off  soon  after  the  flowering,  as  in 
the  poppy;  it  is  then  said  to  be  caducous;  sometimes  it  fades 
and  withers  upon  the  stalk,  as  in  the  blue  bell ;  it  is  then  said 
to  be  marescent  or  withering. 

Each  simple  part,  of  which  the  corolla  is  composed,  is  called 
a  petal.  A  flower  with  petals  is  said  to  be  petalous ;  without 
petals,  it  is  called  apetalous.  The  petals  are  definite  when  their 
number  is  not  more  than  twenty  ;  they  are  said  to  be  indejinitf 
when  they  exceed  that  number. 

If  the  corolla  is  formed  of  one  single  piece,  or  petal,  it  is 
monopetalous ;  if  of  more  than  one,  it  is  polypetalous.  You 
may  sometimes  find  a  difficulty  in  determining  whether  a  corolla 
is  in  one  piece  or  more  ;  for  monopetalous  flowers  often  have 
deep  divisions,  extending  almost  to  the  base  of  the  corolla ;  but 
they  must  be  divided  at  the  base,  or  be  in  separate  pieces,  in  or- 
der  to  be  considered  as  polypetalous.  It  is  a  good  rule  to  con- 
sider the  parts  into  which  a  corolla  naturally  falls,  as  so  many 
petals. 

Monopetalous  corollas  (see  Fig.  50),  consist  of  the  tube, 
throat  and  limb.  The  tube  is  the  lower  part,  having  more  or 
less  the  form  of  a  tunnel.  The  throat  is  the  entrance  into  the 
tube  ;  it  is  either  open,  or  closed  by  scales  or  hairs.  The  limb 
is  the  upper  border  of  the  corolla. 

*  Some  Botanists  call  these  nectaries,  but  this  seems  to  be  making  an  unne- 
cessary confusion  in  terms  ;  for  they  have  as  much  the  appearance  of  petal*, 
as  those  of  a  rose  or  pink. 

How  distinguished  from  the  calyx  ? — Rule  of  Linnaeus— Duration— Parts  of 
the  corolla—  Monopetalous— Polypetalous  corollas,  how  divided  ? — Forms  of 
mouopetalous  corollas. 


COROLLA. 


Fig.  49. 

Polypetdlous  corollas  consist  of  several 
petals.  Each  petal  consists  of  two  parts, 
the  lamina  and  claw. 

The  lamina  (Fig.  49,  a),  is  the  upper 
and  usually  the  thinner  part  of  the  petal ; 
its  margin  is  sometimes  entire,  6r  without 
divisions,  as  in  the  rose  ;  sometimes  notch- 
ed, or  crenate,  as  in  the  pink.  The  lami- 
na corresponds  to  the  limb  of  monopeta- 
lous  corollas. 

The  daw  (Fig.  49,  b),  is  the  lower  part 
of  the  petal,  and  inserted  upon  the  recep- 
tacle ;  it  is  sometimes  very  short,  as  in 
the  rose  ;  in  the  pink,  as  seen  at  Fig.  49,  it  is  long  and  slender. 
The  claw  is  analogous  to  the  tube  of  monopetalous  corollas. 

The  corolla  is  superior  when  it  is  inserted  above  the  germ  ; 
inferior,  when  below.  It  is  regular  when  each  division  cor- 
responds to  the  other.  The  rose  and  pink  have  regular  corol- 
las. When  the  parts  do  not  correspond  with  each  other,  a  co- 
rolla is  irregular,  as  in  the  geranium,  pea,  and  labiate  flowers. 

Different  forms  of  Monopetalous  Corollas. 

Monopetalous  corollas  may,  according  to  their  forms,  be  di- 
vided as  follows. 


Fig.  50. 


1st.  Bell-form  (campanulate,  from 
campanula,  a  little  bell);  the  tube  is 
not  very  distinct,  as  the  corolla  gradu- 
ally spreads  from  the  base  ;  as  in  the 
blue  bell,  hair  bell,  &c.  At  Fig.  50 
is  the  representation  of  a  bell-form  co- 
rolla ;  it  is  monopetalous ;  the  limb  (a) 
is  five  parted;  calyx  (b)  five  parted; 
corolla  superior. 


2d.  Funnel  form  (infundibuliformis,  from  infundi- 
bullum,  a  funnel),  having  a  tubular  base,  and  a  bor- 
der opening  in  the  form  of  a  funnel,  as  the  morning 
glory  (Fig.  51). 


Polypetalous — Corolla,  superior— Inferior — Regular— Irregular  —Bell-form 
—Funnel-form. 


Fig.  52. 


Fig.  53. 


COROLLA. 

3d.  Cup  shaped  (Cyaihiformis,  from  cya- 
thus,  a  drinking  cup),  differing  from  funnel 
shaped  in  having  its  tube,  and  of  course  its 
border,  less  spreading ;  and  from  bell  form, 
in  not  having  its  tube  appear  as  if  scooped 
out  at  the  base  (Fig.  52). 


4th.  Salver  form  (hypocrateriformis, 
from  the  Greek  krater,  an  ancient  drink- 
ing glass,  called  a  Salver).  Having  a 
flat  spreading  border,  pcoceeding  from 
the  top  of  a  tube  (Fig.  53). 


Fig. 55. 


5th.  Wheel  form  (rotata,  from  rota,  a 
wheel),  having  a  short  border  without  any 
tube,  or  with  a  very  short  one  (Fig.  54). 


6th.  Labiate  (from  labia,  lips),  consist* 
of  two  parts,  resembling  the  lips  of  a  horse, 
or  other  animal.  Labiate  corollas  are  said 
to  be  personate,*  having  the  throat  closed, 
or  ringent,f  with  the  throat  open.  You 
have  here  a  labiate  corolla  of  the  ringent 
kind  (Fig.  55).  , 

*  From  persona,  a  mask. 

t  From  ringo,  to  grin  or  gape. 


Cup-shaped — Salver-form — Wheel-form— Labiate,  how  divided  ? 


COROLLA. 


97 


Kg.  56. 


Different  forms  of  Polypetalous  Corollas. 

1st.  Cruciform  (from  crux,  a  cross),  con- 
sisting of  four  petals  of  equal  size,  spreading 
out  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  as  the  radish,  cab- 
bage, &c.  (Fig.  56). 


2d.  Caryopliylkus,  having  five  single  pe- 
tals,  each  terminating  in  a  long  claw,  en- 
closed in  a  tubular  calyx,  as  the  pink, 
(Fig.  57). 


3d.  Liliaceous,  a  corolla  with  six  petals,  spreading  gradu- 
ally from  the  base,  so  as  to  exhibit  a  bell  form  appearance,  as 
in  the  tulip  and  lily. 

4th.  Rosaceous,  a  corolla  formed  of  roundish  spreading  pe- 
tals, without  claws,  or  with  very  short  ones,  as  the  rose  and 
apple. 

Fig.  58. 

5th.  Papilionaceous,  a  flower 
with  a  banner,  two  wings,  and  a 
keel  :  the  name  is  derived  from 
the  word  papilio,  9.  butterfly,  on 
account  of  a  supposed  resemblance 
in  form,  as  the  pea  blossom  (Fig. 
58).* 

If  a  corolla  is  not  in  its  form 
like  any  of  those  we  have  descri- 
bed, it  is  said  to  be  anomalous.  f 

[t  For  this  note,  vide  page  98.] 
*  It  is  proper  here  to  observe  two  important  facts  connected  with  the  descrip- 
tions of  plants,  which  are  made  by  references  to  natural  and  artificial  forms. 
w  1st.  A  certain  number  of  forms  were  assumed  by  Linnaeus  as  standards  for 


Forms  of  polypetalous  corollas  —  Cruciform—  Caryophyllous—  Liliaceous— 
Rosaceous  —  Papilionaceous  —  Anomalous  corollas. 


98  COROLLA. 

Odour  of  Flowers. 

The  odour  of  flowers  has  its  origin  in  the  volatile  oils,  ela- 
borated by  the  corolla  :  its  production  results  from  causes  both 
external  and  internal,  but  equally  beyond  our  observation. 

Temperature  renders  the  odours  of  flowers  more  or  less  sen- 
sible  ;  if  the  heat  is  powerful,  it  dissipates  the  volatile  oils  more 
rapidly  than  they  are  renewed  ;  if  the  heat  is  very  feeble,  the 
volatile  oils  remain  concentrated  in  the  little  cells  where  they 
were  elaborated  ;  in  both  cases  the  flowers  appear  to  possess 
but  little  odour. 

But  if  the  heat  is  neither  too  great  nor  too  Iktle,  the  volatile 
oils  exhale  without  being  dissipated,  forming  a  perfumed  at- 
mosphere  around  the  flowers. 

You  see  now  the  reason,  that  when  you  walk  in  a  flower 
garden  in  the  morning,  or  towards  evening,  the  flowers  seem 
more  fragrant,  than  in  the  middle  of  the  day.  The  air  being 
also  more  charged  with  humidity,  is  another  cause  of  an  in- 
crease of  fragrance  at  those  times  ;  the  moisture,  by  penetra- 
ting the  delicate  tissue  of  the  corollas,  expels  the  volatile  oils. 
There  are  some  exceptions  to  the  laws  just  stated  ;  for  some 
flowers  are  only  odorous  during  the  night,  and  some,  others 
during  the  day.  Some  flowers  exhale  fetid  odours,  which  at- 
tract such  insects  as  are  usually  nourished  by  putrid  animal 
substances.  Many  flowers  exhale  sweet  odours;  but  however 
odours  may  differ,  in  the  sensations  which  they  produce,  it  is 
certain,  they  all  have  a  stupifying,  narcotic  effect  upon  the 
nerves,  and  that  it  is  dangerous  to  respire,  even  the  most 
agreeable  of  them,  in  a  concentrated  state,  for  any  great  length 
of  time. 

One  important  office  of  the  corolla,  is  to  secure  those  delicate 
and  important  organs  which  it  encloses,  the  stamens  and  pis- 
tils, from  all  external  injury,  and  to  favour  their  developement. 
After  the  germ  has  become  fertilized*  by  the  influence  of  tho 

references  ;  none  o£  which  are  to  be  considered  as  perfect.  But  when  any  one 
of  these  forms  ia  referred  to,  it  is  to  be  understood  that  it  is  nearer  the  true 
form  of  the  organ  under  consideration,  than  any  other  of  these  standard  forms. 
U2d.  All'  standard  forms  are  either  drawn  from  well  known  natural  bodies, 
or  from  artificial  bodies,  or  implements  known  to  the  ancients.  Some  of  the 


most  common  natural  bodies  are  the  egg,  lips  of  animals,  the  throat,  head, 
knee,  the  heart,  the  kidneys,  the  hand,  bird  a  feet,  spur,  feather,  tooth,  hair, 
bristles,  silk,  down,  eye  lashes,  veins,  nerves,  wings,  ears,  claws,  &c.  Some  of 


the  most  common  artificial  bodies  or  implements,  are  a  spike,  spindle,  circle, 
oval,  lance,  line,  awl,  arrow,  halbert,  viol,  lyre,  saw,  shield,  cross,  sabre,  nee- 
dle, bell,  keel,  club,  cone,  leather,  cup,  fork,  urn,  wheel,  &c.—  Eaton. 

t  Anomalous  is  derived  from  twoaGreek  words,  a,  without,  and  nomoffjaw; 
it  signifies  without  law  or  rule. 

Origin  of  the  odour  of  flowers^Odour  affected  by  temperature  —  Odour  af- 
fected by  moisture—  Odours  sometimes  disagreeable  —  Dangerous  of  respiration 
for  a  long  time  —  Uses  of  the  corolla. 


NECTARY.  99 

pollen,  the  corolla  fades  away,  and  either  falls  off  or  remains 
withered  upon  the  stalk  ;  the  juices  which  nourished  it  then  go 
to  the  germ,  to  assist  in  its  growth  and  enable  it  to  become  a 
perfect  fruit. 

Another  use  of  the  corolla  seems  to  be,  to  furnish  a  resting 
place  for  insects  in  search  of  honey. 

The  corolla  is  supposed  by  Darwin  to  answer  the  same  pur- 
pose to  the  stamens  and  pistils,  as  the  lungs  in  the  animal  sys- 
tem ;  each  petal  being  furnished  with  an  artery  which  conveys 
the  vegetable  blood  to  its  extremities,  exposing  it  to  the  light 
and  air  under  a  delicate  moist  membrane  ;  this  vegetable  blood, 
according  to  his  theory,  is  then  collected  and  returned  in  cor- 
respondent veins,  for  the  sustenance  of  the  anthers  and  stigmas, 
and  for  the  purpose  of  secreting  honey. 

Bernardin  de  Saint  Pierre,*  author  of  the  interesting  story  of 
Paul  and  Virginia,  thinks  the  corolla  is  intended  to  collect  the 
rays  of  the  sun,  and  to  reflect  them  upon  the  stamens  and  pistils 
which  are  placed  in  the  centre. 

After  all  our  enquiries  into  the  uses  of  the  corolla,  we  arc 
obliged  to  acknowledge  that  it  appears  not  as  important,  in 
the  economy  of  vegetation,  as  many  less  showy  organs.  It 
seems  in  reality  designed  chiefly  to  beautify  and  enliven  crea- 
tion, by  the  variety  and  elegance  of  its  forms,  the  brilliancy  of 
its  colouring,  and  the  sweetness  of  its  perfume. 

..«:*  Nectary. 

In  many  flowers  there  is  an  organ  called  the  nectary,  which 
secretes  a  peculiar  fluid,  the  honey  of  the  plant ;  this  fluid  con- 
stitutes the  principal  food  of  bees,  and  various  other  species  of 
insects. 

Linnaeus  thought  the  nectary  to  be  separate  from  the  co- 
rolla ;  and  every  part  of  the  flower  which  was  not  stamen,  pis. 
til,  calyx  or  corolla,  he  called  by  this  name  :  his  remarks  on 
this  subject  have  given  rise  to  more  severe  criticisms  than  al- 
most any  other  part  of  his  system.  It  is  thought  he  applied 
the  term  nectary  too  extensively,  and  in  too  vague  a  manner. 
We  cannot  assert  that  the  nectary  is  a  separate  organ  from  the 
corolla,  because  it  often  makes  a  part  of  it ;  although  some- 
times it  is  entirely  separate. 

The  nectary  seems  not  to  be  confined  to  any  particular  part 
of  the  flower.  Sometimes,  it  is  a  mere  cavity,  as  in  the  lily. 

*  This  ingenious  author  remarks,  that  man  seems  the  only  animal  sensible 
to  the  sweet  impressions,  made  by  the  colour  and  odour  of  plants  upon  the 
senses  ;  but  we  think  he  has  asserted  too  much.  Do  not  the  brute  creation 
seem  to  enjoy,  by  the  sense  of  smelling,  the  freshness  of  the  verdant  fields  ? 
But  man  is  very  apt  to  say,  "  See  all  things  for  my  use." 

Nectary— Its  use—Not  always  a  separate  organ. 


100  NECTARY. 

Fig.  59. 

The  crown  imperial  (Fritittaria  Impe- 
rialis),  exhibits  in  the  claw  of  each  of  its 
petals,  a  nectary  of  this  kind  ;  each  one 
being  filled  with  a- sweet  liquid,  the  secre- 
tion of  the  flower.  If  these  drops  are  re- 
moved,  others  immediately  take  their 
place.  You  have  here  a  representation 
(Fig.  59)  of  the  crown  imperial ;  its  pe- 
tals appear  cut  off  near  the  base,  in  order 
to  show  the  six  nectariferous  glands  at  tho 
base  of  each. 

In  the  ranunculus,  the  nectary  is  a  production  of  the  corolla 
in  the  form  of  a  scale;  in  the  violet  a  process  of  the  same,  in 
the  form  of  a  horn  or  spur.  In  the  columbine,  the  nectary  is 
a  separate  organ  from  the  petals  in  the  form  of  a  horn.  In  the 
monks-hood,  one  of  the  petals  being  concave,  conceals  the 
nectaries  ;  they  are  therefore  said  to  be  hooded. 

In  monopetalous  corollas,  the  tube  is  supposed  to  answer  the 
purpose  of  a  nectary  in  secreting  the  honey.  In  the  honey- 
suckle we  find  at  the  bottom  of  the  tube,  a  quantity  of  nectari- 
ferous liquid,  yet  there  is  no  appearance  of  any  gland  or  organ, 
by  which  it  could  have  been  secreted,  unless  we  suppose  the 
tube  to  have  performed  this  office. 

With  respect  to  the  purpose  for  which  honey  is  secreted  by 
the  nectary  and  other  parts  of  the  flower,  there  seems,  among 
authors,  to  be  some  difference  of  opinion.  Darwin  supposes 
this  to  be  the  food  with  which  the  stamens  and  pistils  are  nour- 
ished, or  the  unripe  seeds  perfected.  Smith  asserts,  that  tho 
only  use  of  honey  with  respect  to  the  plant,  is  to  tempt  insects, 
which  in  procuring  it,  scatter  the  dust  of  the  anthers,  and  fertil- 
ize the  flower,  and  even  carry  the  pollen  from  the  barren  to  the 
fertile  blossoms ;  this  is  particularly  the  case  in  the  fig-tree. 
Although  in  the  case  of.  plants  whose  stamens  and  pistils  are 
on  separate  flowers,  we  see  this  advantage  arising  from  the 
fact  of  insects  being  attracted  by  the  honey,  yet  since  the  great- 
er number  of  plants  do  not  need  this  assistance  in  carry in<£ 
their  pollen  to  the  stigmas,  we  cannot  agree  with  Smith  that  the 
only  use  of  honey  is  to  tempt  insects. 

With  respect  to  the  use  of  honey  in  the  vegetable  system,  it 
seems  difficult  to  determine ;  some  imagine  that  it  especially 
contributes  to  the  perfection  of  the  stamens;  but  plants  without 
appearing  to  secrete  honey,  have  perfect  stamens.  One  thing 

Nectary  of  the  crown  imperial — Different  forms  of  nectaries — Opinions  (jf 
different  writers  respecting  their  use — Honey. 


STAMENS.  101 

,  however  is  certain  with  respect  to  this  fluid,  that  without  detri- 
ment to  the  plant,  it  yields  to  the  industrious  bee  the  material 
for  the  manufacture  of  honey,  a  luxury  highly  valued  from  the 
most  ancient  times.  Virgil  knew  that  bees  made  honey  from 
the  juices  which  they  gathered  from  flowers;  and  we  indeed, 
on  this  subject,  know  but  little  more  than  he  has  beautifully  ex- 
pressed  in  his  pastorals. 

Although  we  are  always  discovering  something  new  and 
wonderful  in  the  economy  of  nature,  and  in  some  cases  seem 
permitted  to  search  into  the  hidden  mysteries  of  her  great  Au- 
thor, yet  in  our  researches  we  are  ever  made  sensible  of  the 
limited  nature  of  our  own  faculties  ;  and  a  still,  small  voice, 
seems  to  whisper  to  man  in  the  proudest  triumphs  of  his  rea- 
son, "Hitherto  shalt  thougo,  but  no  farther." 



LECTURE   XIII. 

Stamens  and  Pistils. 

ALTHOUGH  the  calyx  and  the  corolla  may  be  wanting,  the  sta- 
mens and  pistils  are  indispensable  to  the  perfection  of  the  fruit. 
They  are  in  most  plants  enclosed  by  the  same  envelope,  or  stand 
upon  the  same  receptacle;  in  the  class  Monoecia  they  are  on 
different  flowers  which  spring  from  one  common  root ;  and  in 
Dioecia,  they  are  on  different  flowers,  springing  from  different 
roots.  Yet  however  distant  the  stamens  and  pistils  may  be,  na- 
ture has  provided  ways  by  which  the  pollen  from  the  staminat6 
flowers  may  be  conveyed  to  the  pistillate,  and  there  assist  in 
perfecting  the  seed .  That  you  may  the  better  understand  this 
curious  process,  and  the  organs  by  means  of  which  it  is  carried 
on,  we  will  examine  each  one  separately. 

Stamens. 

Stamens  are  thread-like  parts  which  are  exterior  with  respect 
to  the  pistil,  interior  with  regard  to  the  corolla.  They  exhibit 
a  variety  of  positions  with  respect  to  the  pistil.  These  po- 
sitions seldom  vary  in  the  same  family,  and  they  have  therefore 
been  taken  by  the  celebrated  Jussieu  as  one  of  the  fundamental 
distinctions  in  his  classification,  called  the  natural  method.  If 
the  stamens  are  inserted  upon  the  pistil,  as  in  umbelliferous 
plants,  they  are  said  to  be  epigynous  (from  epi  upon,  and  gynia 
pistil) ;  if  the  stamens  are  inserted  under  the  germ,  as  in  cruci- 
form plants,  they  are  laid  to  be  hypogynous  (from  hypo  under, 
nnd  gynia  pistil) ;  when  the  stamens  are  inserted  upon  the  calyx, 

Reflections — Stamens  and  pistils  necessary — -Definitions  of  the  stamen — 
Positions  with  jespeet  to  the  pistil. 

9* 


102  STAMENS. 

and  thus  stand  around  the  germ,  as  in  rosaceous  plants,  they  are 
said  to  be  perigynous,  (fromperi  around,  and  gynia  pistil). 

When  a  corolla  is  rnonopetalous,  the  number  of  stamens  is 
usually  either  equal  or  double,  or  half  that  of  the  divisions  of 
the  corolla  ;  the  stamens  in  such  flowers  never  exceed  twenty. 

In  polypetalous  corollas,  the  number  of  stamens  may  be  much 
greater.  When  the  number  of  stamens  equals  the  divisions  of 
the  corolla,  they  usually  alternate  with  these  divisions.  WheA 
the  number  of  stamens  is  double  the  divisions  of  the  corolla, 
half  of  the  stamens  are  usually  placed  in  the  intervals  of  the 
divisions,  and  the  remaining  half  before  each  lobe  of  the  corolla, 
corresponding  to  the  intervals  in  the  divisions  of  the  calyx.  If 
any  of  the  stamens  are  barren  or  without  anthers,  they  are 
those  which  are  placed  before  the  lobes  of  the  corolla. 

In  commencing  the  analysis  of  flowers  according  tothe  Lin- 
naean  system,  you  learned  that  the  number  of  stamens,  their po- 
sition, relative  length,  and  connection,  taken  either  singly  or  in 
combination,  afford  certain  and  distinctive  marks  for  purposes 
of  classification. 

In  the  first  place  we  find  the  stamens  differing  in  number,  in 
different  plants ;  some  plants  have  but  one,  some  two,  and  so 
on  till  we  come  to  ten ;  when  they  have  more  than  ten,  we  find 
the  number  in  the  same  plant  varies,  and  therefore  we  cannot 
depend  on  the  cirumstance  of  number  for  further  classification. 

We  then  resort  to  position,  and  consider  whether  the  stamens 
are  inserted  upon  the  calyx  or  not,  thus  furnishing  an  eleventh 
and  a  twelfth  class. 

Inequality  in  the  length  of  stamens,  considered  with  respect 
to  number,  furnishes  us  with  a  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  class. 

The  connection  or  union  of  stamens  gives  us  the  fifteenth 
class,  where  the  filaments  of  the  stamens  are  united  in  one  set; 
the  sixteenth  class  where  they  are  in  two  sets ;  the  seventeenth 
where  the  anthers  of  the  stamens  are  united. 

The  three  remaining  classes  of  phenogamous  plants  are  dis- 
tinguished by  the  position  of  the  stamens  with  n-spect  to  the 
pistils.  In  the  eighteenth  class  the  stamens  stand  on  the  pistil ; 
in  the  nineteenth  the  stamens  and  pistils  are  on  separate  flowers 
on  the  same  plant ;  in  the  twentieth  they  are  on  separate  plants ; 
and  in  the  twenty-first  they  are  invisible. 

We  will  now  proceed  to  the  parts  of  the  stamen ;  these  are 
two.  The  filament  and  anther. 

The  Filament,  is  so  called  fromJUui^i,  a  thread.     Filaments 

Divisions  of  monopetalous  corollas  usually  in  proportion  to  the  number  of 
stamens— Situation  of  the  stamens  with  respect  to  the  divisions  of  the  corolla 
— Stamens  used  for  purposes  of  classification — Differ  in  number — In  the  mode 
of  insertion— Stamens  differ  in  length — In  connection — In  position  with  respect 
*«  the  pistil — Parts  of  the  stamens — Filament. 


PISTIL.  103 

vary  in  their  form ;  some  are  long  and  slender,  as  in  the  pink  ; 
others  are  short  and  thick,  as  in  the  tulip.  They  are  usually 
smooth,  but  in  the  mullein  they  are  bearded ;  in  the  spider- wort, 
(Tradescantia,)  they  are  covered  with  down.  In  most  cases  a 
filament  supports  but  one  anther,  but  sometimes  it  is  forked  and 
bears  two  or  more  ;  in  some  instances,  many  filaments  have 
but  one  anther.  When  the  filaments  are  enclosed  in  the  tube 
of  the  corolla  they  are  said  to  be  inserted,  when  they  extend 
out  of  it,  exserled.  In  some  cases  the  filament  is  wanting,  and 
the  anther  is  sessile,  or  immediately  attached  to  the  corolla. 

In  double  flowers,  the  stamens,  which  seem  to  be  intimately 
connected  with  the  parts  of  the  corolla,  are  changed  to  petals. 
Thisns  the  effect  of  cultivation,  which  by  affording  the  stamens 
excess  of  nourishment,  causes  them  to  swell  out,  and  thus  as- 
sume  the  form  of  petals.  In  some  double  flowers  almost  every 
trace  of  the  stamens  disappears ;  in  others,  it  is  very  easy  to 
perceive  the  metamorphosis  which  they  have  undergone,  as 
they  retain  something  of  their  original  form.  The  anthers  usu- 
ally disappear,  which  shows  that  the  filaments  have  absorbed  all 
the  nourishment.  In  many  double  flowers,  roses  especially,  we 
can  see  the  change  as  it  takes  place,  some  stamens  entirely 
changed,  others  retaining  something  of  their  form,  and  others 
still  perfect.  When  all  the  stamens  disappear,  no  perfect  fruit 
is  produced.  On  account  of  this  degeneration  of  the  stamens, 
cultivated  flowers  are  not  usually  so  good  for  botanical  analysis, 
as  wild  ones.  The  single  flower  exhibits  the  number  of  parts 
which  nature  has  given  to  it.  The  rose  in  its  native  state  has 
but  five  petals. 

Anther,  is  a  little  knob  or  box  usually  situated  on  the  sum- 
mit of  the  filament ;  it  has  cells  or  cavities  which  contain  a  pow. 
der  called  the  pollen  ;  this  is  yellow,  and  very  conspicuous  in 
the  lily  and  tulip.     You  have  here  the  representation  (Fig.  60) 
of  a  stamen  with  its    filament  (a), 
its  anther  (&),  and  the   discharging 
pollen  (c).     In  many  flowers  you 
will  perceive  the  filament  to  be  want- 
ing ;  the  anthers  are  then  said  to  be 
'sessile ;  that  is,   placed  immediately 
upon  the  corolla ;  as  at  (d),  which 
represents  a  flower  cut  open,  and  its 
five  stamens  growing  sessile  in  the 
throat. 

Pistil^ 

In  the  centre  of  the  flower  stands  the  pistil,  an  organ  essen- 
tial to  the  plant.     Like  the  stamens,  the  pistils  vary  in  number 

Stamens  changed  to  petals— Anther— Pistil,  situation  and  number. 


104  PISTIL 

in  different  plants,  some  having  but  one  and  others  hundreds. 
Linnseus  has  founded  the  orders  of  his  first  twelve  classes  on 
the  number  of  these  organs.  When  they  are  more  than  ten, 
he  does  not  re-ly  upon  their  number,  which  in  this  case  is  found 
to  vary  in  individuals  of  the  same  genus. 

The  pistil  consists  of  three  parts,  the  germ,  style  and  stigma. 
It  may  be  compared  to  a  pillar ;  the  germ  (Fig.  61,  a),  corres- 
Fig.  61.  ponding  to  the  base  ;  the  style  (b)  to 

the  shaft  ;  and  the  stigma  (e)  to  the 

capital. 

The  figure  at  (g)  represents  the  pis- 

°^*  ^e  P°PPy »  tne  germ  or  base  is 
rery  large ;  you  will  perceive  that 
'the  style  is  wanting,  and  the  stigma 
is  sessile,  or  placed  immediately  on 
the  germ.  The  style  is  not  an  essen- 
tial part,  but  the  stigma  and  germ  are  never  wanting ;  so  that 
these  two  parts,  as  in  the  poppy,  often  constitute  a  pistil. 

Germ.  The  germ  contains  the  rudiments  of  the  fruit  yet  in 
an  embryo  or  unformed  state.  A  distinction  is  to  be  made  be- 
tween the  germ  here  spoken  of  and  the  germ  of  the  bud.  This 
germ  is  the  future  fruit,  and  in  passing  to  the  state  of  the  mature 
fruit,  it  undergoes  a  very  great  change.  You  would  scarcely 
believe  that  the  pumpkin  is  but  the  germ  of  the  small  yellow 
flower  of  the  plant.  The  germ  is  said  to  be  superior  when  placed 
above  the  calyx  or  corolla,  as  in  the  strawberry  :  inferior  when 
below  them,  as  in  the  apple.  The  figure  of  the  germ  is  round- 
ish in  some  plants,  cordate  and  angled  in  others;  but  its  vari- 
ous forms  can  better  be  learned  by  observation  than  descrip- 
tion. 

Style.  This,  like  the  filament,  is  sometimes  wanting  ;  when 
present,  it  proceeds  from  the  germ,  and  bears  the  stigma  on 
its  summit.  It  is  usually  long  and  slender,  of  a  cylindrical 
form,  consisting  of  bundles  of  fibres,  which  transmit  from  the 
stigma  to  the  germ  the  fertilizing  pollen. 

Stigma.  This  word  signifies  a  perfecting.  The  stigma  is 
the  top  of  the  pistil,  and  always  present ;  if  the  style  be  want- 
ing, it  is  placed  upon  the  germ,  and  said  to  be  sessile,  as  in  the 
tulip.  The  stigma  is  various  in  size  and  form ;  sometimes  it 
is  a  round  head  ;  sometimes  hollow  and  gaping,  more  especial- 
ly when  the  flower  is  in  its  highest  perfection ;  it  is  generally 
downy,  and  always  more  or 'less  moist  with  a  peculiar  viscid 
fluid. 

Orders  founded  upon  the  pistil — Parts  of  the  pistil — Pistil  compared  to  a  pil- 
lar—Germ— Style— Stigma. 


STAMENS  AND  PISTILS.  105 

Use  of  the  Stamens  and  Pistils. 

In  a  former  part  of  our  lectures,  it  was  observed  that  the 
stamens  and  pistils  were  necessary  to  the  perfection  of  the 
fruit ;  we  will  now  explain  to  you  the  manner  in  which  they 
conduce  to  this  important  object ;  as  you  are  now  acquainted 
with  the  different  organs  and  their  names,  you  will  no  doubt 
easily  understand  the  explanation. 

The  pollen,  which  in  most  flowers  is  a  kind  of  yellow  dust,  is 
thrown  out  by  the  bursting  of  the  anther,  which  takes  place  in  a 
certain  stage  of  the  flower.  The  pollen  is  very  curiously  form- 
ed ;  although  appearing  like  little  particles  of  dust,  upon  exa- 
mining it  with  a  microscope  it  is  found  to  be  composed  of 
innumerable  organized  corpuscles.  These  little  bodies,  though 
usually  yellow,  are  sometimes  white,  red,  blue,  &c.  In  order 
to  observe  them  well,  it  is  necessary  to  put  them  upon  water ; 
the  moisture,  by  swelling  them,  renders  their  true  form  per- 
ceptible. They  are  oblong  in  the  Umbelliferous  plants,  globu- 
lar in  the  Syngenesious,  and  triangular  in  some  others.  In 
some  their  surface  is  smooth,  in  others  armed  with  little  points. 
They  are  connected  together  by  minute  threads  ,  as  in  the 
honey-suckle,  &c.  These  little  bodies,  thus  placed  upon  water, 
swell  with  the  moisture  until  they  burst ;  a  liquid  matter  is 
then  thrown  out,  and,  expanding  upon  the  surface  of  the  water, 
appears  like  a  light  cloud. 

"  I  should  never  finish,"  (says  the  French  botanist,*  from 
whom  this  account  of  the  pollen  is  translated,)  "if  I  should  at- 
tempt  to  describe  the  varieties  of  appearances  in  the  pollen." 

If  you  have  paid  attention  to  what  has  been  said  respecting 
the  pollen,  you  perceive  that  wonders  exist  in  nature,  which 
are  entirely  unperceived  by  a  careless  observer.  .You  would 
scarcely  have  imagined  that  the  yellow  dust  seen  upon  the  lily 
or  tulip,  and  scarcely  visible  upon  many  other  flowers,  should 
exhibit  appearances  so  interesting,  as  to  engage  the  attention 
of  a  learned  philosopher  to  such  an  extent,  and  in  such  a  num- 
ber of  experiments,  that  he  should  find  it  too  long  a  task  to 
enumerate  all  the  phenomena  which  he  had  observed.  It  is 
to  convince  you  that  the  field  of  observation  in  the  works  of 
nature  is  absolutely  unbounded,  that  we  have  brought  this  sub- 
ject before  you  ;  for  in  general  our  limits  do  not  permit  us  to 
penetrate  into  the  minute  investigations  which  delight  those 
who  have  passed  beyond  the  first  principles  of  natural  science. 

Another  purpose,  and  one  more  connected  with  our  present 

*  Mirbel. 

Use  of  the  stamens  and  pistils— Description  of  the  pollen— Why  the  subject 
is  introduced. 


106  POLLEN, 

design,  in  calling  your  attention  to  this  subject,  is  to  shew  ther 
use  of  the  pollen  in  the  vegetable  economy.  You  have  seen 
the  effect  of  moisture  upon  the  pollen  ;  you  will  recollect  that 
the  stigma  was  said  to  be  imbued  with  a  liquid  substance,  anrt 
that  the  anther,  when  ripe,  throws  out  the  pollen  by  the  spon- 
taneous opening  of  its  lids  or  valves ;  the  pollen  coming  in 
contact  with  the  moist  stigma,  each  little  sack  of  it  explodes, 
and  the  oily  substance  which  it  contains  being  absorbed  by 
the  stigma,  passes  through  minute  pores  into  the  germ. 

In  the  germ  are  seeds  formed,  but  these  seeds  require  tho 
agency  of  the  pollen  to  bring  them  to  the  perfection  necessary 
for  producing  their  species.  You  see  now  why  the  stamens 
and  pistils  are  so  essential  to  the  perfection  of  a  plant.  Na- 
ture does  not  form  a  beautiful  flower  and  then  leave  it  to 
perish  without  any  provision  for  a  future  plant ;  but  in  every 
vegetable  provides  for  the  renewal  of  the  same. 

The  real  use  of  stamens  and  pistils  was  long  a  subject  of 
dispute  among  philosophers,  till  Linnaeus  explained  it  beyond 
a  possibility  of  doubt ;  these  organs  have  from  the  most  remote 
antiquity  been  considered  of  great  importance  in  perfecting 
the  fruit.  The  Date  Palm,  which  was  cultivated  by  the  an- 
cients, bears  stamens  and  pistils  on  separate  trees  ;  the  Greeks 
discovered  that  in  order  to  have  good  fruit,  it  was  necessary 
to  plant  the  two  kinds  of  trees  near  together,  and  that  without 
this  assistance  the  dates  had  no  kernel,  and  were  not  good  for 
food. 

In  the  east,  at  the  present  day,  those  who  cultivate  palms 
select  trees  with  pistillate  flowers,  as  these  alone  bear  fruit. 
When  the  plant  is  in  blossom,  the  peasants  gather  branches  of 
the  wild  palm  trees,  whose  blossoms  contain  stamens,  and  strew 
the  pollen  over  their  cultivated  trees. 

Pistillate  flowers  are  called  fertile,  staminate  infertile  flowers. 

As  moisture  causes  the  pollen  to  explode,  rains  and  heavy 
dews  are  sometimes  injurious  to  plants ;  the  farmer  fears  wet 
weather  while  his  corn  is  in  blossom.  Nature  has  kindly  or- 
dered that  most  flowers  should  either  fold  their  petals  together, 
or  hang  down  their  heads  when  the  sun  does  not  shine ;  thus 
protecting  the  pollen  from  injury. 

The  fertilization  of  the  fig  is  said  to  be  accomplished  by  in- 
sects. In  this  singular  plant  the  fruit  encloses  the  flower;  it  is 
at  first  like  a  hollow  receptacle,  lined  with  many  flowers,  sel- 
dom both  stamens  and  pistils  in  the  same  fig.  This  receptacle 
has  only  a  small  opening  at  the  summit.  The  seeds  are  ferti- 
lise of  the  pollen  in  the  vegetable  economy — Real  use  of  the  stamens  and 
pistils  unknown  till  the  time  of  Linnaeus — Cultivation  of  palms  in  the  east — 
Flowers  fold  their  petals  in  wet  weather — Fertilization  of  the  fig. 


POLLEN.  107 

iized  by  certain  little  flies,  fluttering  from  one  fig  to  the  other, 
and  thus  carrying  the  pollen  from  the  staminate  to  the  pistil- 
late flowers. 

Although  the  fertilization  of  plants  where  the  stamens  and 
pistils  are  on  separate  flowers,  depends  a  little  upon  chance, 
the  favourable  chances  are  so  numerous  that  it  is  hardly  pos- 
sible, in  the  order  of  nature,  that  a  pistillate  plant  should  re- 
main unfertilized.  The  particles  of  the  pollen  are  light  and 
abundant,  and  the  butterflies,  the  honey  bees,  and  other  in- 
sects,  transport  them  from  flower  to  flower. 

The  winds  also  assist  in  executing  the  designs  of  nature. 

The  pollen  of  the  Pines  and  Firs,  moved  by  winds,  may 
be  seen  rising  like  a  cloud  above  the  forests ;  the  particles  be- 
ing disseminated,  fall  upon  the  pistillate  flowers,  and  rolling 
within  their  scaly  envelopes  fertilize  the  germs. 

A  curious  fact  is  stated  by  an  Italian  writer,  viz.  that  in 
places  about  forty  miles  distant,  grew  two  palm  trees,  the  one 
without  stamens,  the  other  without  pistils ;  neither  of  them 
bore  seed  for  many  years ;  but  in  process  of  time  they  grew 
so  tall  as  to  tower  above  all  the  objects  near  them.  The  wind 
thus  meeting  with  no  obstruction,  wafted  the  pollen  to  the  pis- 
tillate flowers,  which,  to  the  astonishment  of  all,  began  to  pro- 
duce fruit. 

The  number  of  plants  in  which  the  pistils  and  stamens  are 
on  different  flowers,  is  few  compared  to  those  which  have  these 
important  organs  enclosed  within  the  same  corolla ;  this  is  the 
case  with  most  of  our  plants  and  shrubs,  and  even  with  the  trees 
of  hot  countries ;  whose  leaves  being  always  present,  might 
impede  the  passage  of  the  pollen.  On  the  contrary  the  treed 
of  cold  climates  have  generally  the  stamens  and  pistils  on  sepa- 
rate flowers,  blossoming  before  the  leaves  come  forth,  and  in  a 
windy  season  of  the  year.  Those  which  blossom  later,  as  the 
oak,  are  either  peculiarly  frequented  by  insects,  or  like  the 
numerous  kinds  of  firs,  have  leaves  so  little  in  the  way,  and 
pollen  so  excessively  abundant,  that  it  can  scarcely  fail  of  gain- 
ing access  to  the  pistillate  flower. 

In  all  cases  the  pollen  and  stigma  are  in  perfection  at  the 
same  time,  and  the  stamens  are  generally  shortest  in  drooping 
flowers,  and  longest  in  erect  ones ;  thus  in  both  cases  hanging 
over  the  stigma.  "  Gardeners  formerly  attempted  to  assist  na- 
ture, by  stripping  off  the  infertile  flowers  of  melons  and  cucum- 
bers, considering  them  as  unnecessary  incumbrances,  since 

Various  methods  by  which  nature  conveys  pollen  to  the  pistillate  plants — 
Facts  stated  by  an  Italian  writer — Trees  of  hot  countries  have  mostly  stamens 
and  pistils  on  the  same  corolla — Trees  of  cold  countries  have  the  stamens  and 
pistils  on  separate  flowers — Pollen  and  stigma  in  perfection  at  the  same  time. 


108  INFLORESCENCE. 

they  would  never  become  fruit.  But  finding  that  they  then 
obtained  no  fruit  at  all,  they  soon  learned  the  wiser  practice 
of  admitting  the  winds  to  blow,  and  the  insects  to  transfer  the 
pollen  of  the  infertile  to  the  fruit-bearing  flowers."* 


LECTURE  XIV. 

Inflorescence. — Receptacle. — Fruit. — MirbeVa  classification  of 
fruits. — LinncBus'  classification  of  fruits. 

HAVING  given  our  particular  attention  to  the  important  uses 
of  the  stamens  and  pistils,  we  shall  now  proceed  to  consider 
the  various  ways  in  which  flowers  grow  upon  their  stalks ; 
this  is  called  their  inflorescence,  or  mode  of  flowering. 

Inflorescence. 

The  position  of  the  flower  may  be  considered  under  thre« 
heads. 

With  respect  to  the  organs  which  it  contains. 

With  respect  to  the  branches  which  support  it. 

With  respect  to  the  flowers  which  are  near  it,  or  which 
grow  on  the  same  peduncle. 

1st.   The  corolla  with  respect  to  the  organs  which  it  contains. 

The  corolla,  when  it  is  monopetalous,  supports  the  stamens, 
the  number  of  which  in  this  case  always  corresponds  to  tho 
number  of  divisions  of  the  limb  of  the  corolla.  When  the  co- 
rolla is  polypetalous,  the  stamens  are  inserted  upon  the  calyx 
or  upon  the  receptacle ;  their  number  is  then  usually  double 
the  number  of  petals ;  as  in  the  pink,  which  has  ten  stamens 
and  five  petals.  When  inserted  beneath  the  germ  or  base  of 
the  pistil,  the  corolla  is  said  to  be  hypo.gynous  (underneath  tho 
style  or  inferior) ;  as  in  the  stramonium.  When  it  is  inserted 
into  the  calyx  and  surrounds  the  germ,  as  in  the  currant,  it  is 
said  to  be  peri-gynous  (around  the  style,  or  enveloping  it). 
When  the  corolla  is  inserted  upon  the  germ,  as  in  the  trumpet- 
honey-suckle,  it  is  said  to  be  epi-gynous  (upon  the  germ,  or 
superior). 

2d.   The  corolla  with  respect  to  the  branches  which  support  it. 

The  disposition  of  flowers  upon  their  branches  is  analogous 
to  that  of  leaves ;  thus,  flowers  are  either  radical,  coming  from 
the  root,  or  cauline,  coming  from  the  stem ;  they  are  peduncled 

*  Smith. 

Inflorescence — Position  of  the  corolla  considered  under  three  heads—  1st. 
Corolla  with  respect  to  the  organs  which  it  contains — 2d.  Branches  which 
rapport  the  corolla. 


INFLORESCENCE.  109 

or  sessile,  solitary,  scattered  or  opposite,  alternate  or  axillary. 
Sometimes  they  are  unilateral,  growing  on  one  side  of  the 
branch,  and  sometimes  fixed  equally  upon  all  parts  of  the  pe- 
duncle and  pointing  in  different  directions. 

3d.  The  corolla  with  respect  to  the  flowers  which  surround  it, 
or  which  grow  on  the  same  peduncle. 

The  different  modes  of  division  of  the  common  peduncle,  in- 
to  lesser  peduncles  or  supports,  cause  a  great  difference  in  the 
appearance  and  situation  of  flowers,  and  appear  under  a  variety 
of  forms.  The  green  part  which  comes  from  the  stem  and 
supports  the  flower,  is  called  the  peduncle ;  sometimes  it  is  call- 
ed the  foot  stalk  of  the  flower  or  fruit.  The  divisions  of  the 
peduncle  are  called  pedicels. 

When  the  plant  is  one  flowered,  the  flower  is  usually  insert- 
ed at  the  end  of  the  stem ;  the  peduncle  in  that  case  is  scarcely 
distinct  from  the  stem. 

The  most  common  kinds  of  inflorescence  are  as  follows  ; 
Fig.  62. 

1st.  Whorl  (Fig.  62),  an  assemblage 
of  flowers  surrounding  the  stem  or  its 
branches,  constitutes  a  whorl  or  ring  ; 
this  is  se^n  in  mint  and  many  of  the  la- 
biate plants.  Flowers  which  grow  in 
this  manner  are  said  to  be  verticillate, 
from  the  Latin  word  verto,  to  turn. 
Leaves  surrounding  the  stem  in  a  simi- 
lar manner  are  said  to  be  stellate,  or 
like  a  star. 


3d.  Flowers  which  surround  the  corolla— Different  kinds  of  inflorescence 
-Whorl. 

10 


110 


INFLORESCENCE 


Fig.  63. 


2d.  Raceme  (Fig.  63, 
a),  consists  of  numerous 
flowers  on  its  own  stalk 
or  pedicel,  and  all  ar- 
r;ui'_red  on  one  common 
peduncle,  as  a  bunch  of 
currants. 

3d.  Panicle  (Fig.  63, 
b),  bears  tin-  flowers  in 
a  kind  of  loose  subdivi- 
ded bunch  or  cluster. 
without  any  regular  or- 
der; as  in  the  oat.  A 
panicle  contracted  into 
a  compact,  somewhat 
ovate  form,  as  in  t he- 
lilac,  is  called  a  thuw 
or  bunch  ;  a  bunch  of 
grapes  is  a  good  exam- 
ple of  a  thyrse. 


4th.  >>'/.'•  (Fig.  64 
a),  this  'snii  assrn.hlag'- 
of  flowers  arising  from 
-'di  s  of  a  n.inmon 
;  the  flowers  an- 
sessiV:  or  with  very 
short  peduncles  ;  as  the 
greases  ;;nd  the  mullein. 
A  spike  is  generally 
erect.  The  lowest  flow - 
crs  usually  blossom  and 
fade  before  the  upper 
ones  expand.  When  the 
flowers  in  a  spike  are 
crowded  very  close,  ai: 
ear  is  formed,  as  in  In- 
dian corn. 

5th.  U?nbel(Fig.  64, 
&),  several  flower  stalks 
of  nearly  equal  length, 


Raceme— Panicle— Spike— Umbel . 


INFLORESCENCE. 


Ill 


spreading  out  from  a  common  centre,  like  the  rays  of  an  um-   . 
brella,  bearing  flowers  on  their  summits ;  as  fennel  and  carrot. 
6th.   Cyme  (Fig.  64,  c),  resembles  an  umbel  in  having  its 
common  stalks  all  spring  from  one  centre,  but  differs  in  having 
those  stalks  irregularly  subdivided*;  as  the  snow  ball  and  elder. 

Fig.  65. 


7th.  Corymb  (Fig.  65,  a),  or  false  umbel,  when  the  pedun- 
cles rise  from  different  heights  above  the  main  stem,  but  the 
lower  ones  being  longer,  they  form  nearly  a  level  or  a  convex 
top  ;,  as  the  yarrow. 

8th.  Fascicle  (Fig.  65,  &),  flowers  on  little  stalks  variously 
inserted  and  subdivided,  collected  into  a  close  bundle,  level  at 
the  top ;  as  the  sweet  william ;  it  resembles  a  corymb,  but  the 
flowers  are  more  densely  clustered. 

9th.  Head  (Fig.  65, 'c),  or  tuft,  has  sessile  flowers  heaped 
together  in  a  globular  form ;  as  in  the  clover,  and  button  bush 
(cephalanthus). 

Cyme— Cory  mb  —  Fascicle— Head . 


112 


INFLORESCENCE 


Fig.  66. 


10th.  Ament  or  catkin,  is  an  assemblage 
of  flowers,  composed  of  scales  and  stamens, 
arranged  along  a  common  thread-like  re- 
ceptable,  as  in  the  chesnut  and  willow; 
this  is  more  particularly  described  under 
the  divisions  of  the  calyx.  The  scales  of 
the  ament  are  properly  the  calyxes ;  the 
whole  aggregate,  including  scales,  sta- 
mens or  pistils,1  and  filiform  receptacle,  con- 
stitutes the  ament.  At  Fig.  66  is  the  rep- 
resentation of  the  ament  of  the  poplar,  con- 
taining pistillate  flowers;  this  is  oblong, 
loosely  imbricated,  and  cylindrical;  the 
'•  calyx  is  a  flat  scale,  with  deep,  fringed 
i  partings.  At  b,  is  a  representation  of  the 
'fertile  or  pistillate  flower;  the  calyx  or 
bract  is  a  little  below  the  corolla,  which  is  cup  shaped,  of  one 
petal,  and  crowned  with  an  egg-shaped,  pointed  germ ;  the 
germ  is  superior,  and  bears  four  (sometimes  eight)  stigmas. 

The  staminate  ament  resembles  the  pistillate,  except  that  its 
corolla  encloses  eight  stamens,  but  no  pistil.  The  poplar  is  in 
the  class  Dioecia,  because  the  pistillate  and  staminate  flowers 
are  on  different  trees,  and  of  the  order  Octandria,  because  its 
barren  flowers  have  eight  stamens. 
Fig.  67. 

llth.  Spadix,isa.n 
assemblage  of  flowers 
growing  upon  a  com- 
mon receptacle,  and 
surrounded  by  a  spa- 
tha  or  sheath,  as  in 
the  Egyptian  lily. 
At  Fig.  67  a,  is  a  rep- 
resentation of  the 
blossom  of  the  wild 
turnip  (arum) ;  a  rep- 
resents the  spatha 
which  is  erect,  sheath- 
ing, oblong,  convolute 
at  the  base,  b;  com- 
pressed above  and  be- 
low the  middle ;  c  rep- 
resents the  spadix 
which,  from  its  club- 
shaped  appearance,  is  called  clavi  form  (from 

Ament — Spadix. 


FRUIT, 

At  B  is  the  spadix  divested  of  the  spatha;  a  is  the  clavi- 
form  summit ;  b  a  ring  of  filaments  without  anthers  ;  c  a  ring 
of  sessile  anthers ;  d  a  dense  ring  of  pistillate  flowers  with  ses- 
sile stigmas  ;  each  germ  produces  a  one-celled  globular  berry. 
This  plant  is  of  the  class  Moncecia  because  its  staminate  and 
pistillate  flowers  are  separate,  but  yet  grow  on  the  same  plant ; 
it  is  in  the  order  Polyandria,  because  its  stamens  are  nu- 
merous. 

Receptacle. 

The  receptacle  is  the  extremity  of  the  peduncle  ;  at  first  it 
supports  the  flower,  and  afterwards  the  fruit.  As  this  is  its  on- 
ly use,  it  may  properly  be  considered  in  connexion  with  the 
organs  of  fructification.  In  simple  flowers,  as  the  tujip,  the 
receptacle  is  scarcely  to  be  distinguished  from  the  peduncle, 
but  in  compound  flowers  it  is  expanded  and  furnishes  a  sup- 
port for  the  flowers  and  fruit.  Receptacles  are  of  various 
kinds;  as, 

1st.  Proper,  supports  but  one  flower,  as  in  the  violet  and 
lily. 

2d.  Common,  supports  many  flowers  or  florets,  the  assem- 
blage of  which  forms  an  aggregate  or  compound  flower,  as  in 
the  sunflower  and  dandelion.  The  common  receptacle  pre- 
sents a  great  variety  of  forms  ;  it  is  either  dry  or  pulpy :  it  is 
concave  in  the  artichoke ;  convex,  in  other  plants  ;  flat,  in  the 
sunflower,  conical  in  some,  and  spherical  in  others.  As  to  its 
surface,  it  is  punctate,  or  interspersed  with  hollow  points  or 
dot'fi,  as  in  the  daisy,  hairy  as  in  the  thistle,  naked  as  in  the 
dandelion,  or  chaffy  as  in  the  chamomile. 

3d.  Rachis,  is  the  filiform  receptacle  which  connects  the  flo- 
rets in  a  spike,  as  in  the  heads  of  wheat. 

The  Fruit. 

The  fruit  is  composed  of  two  principal  parts,  the  pericarp 
and  seed.  The  term  pericarp  is  derived  from  peri  around,  and 
karpos  seed  or  fruit ;  it  signifies  surrounding  the  seed.  All 
that  in  any  fruit  which  is  not  the  seed  belongs  to  the  pericarp. 

Let  us  now  inquire  into  the  progress  of  the  fruit  from  its  first 
appearance  in  the  germ  to  its  mature  state.  When  you  ana- 
lyze a  flower,  you  often  find  it  necessary  to  ascertain  the  num- 
ber of  cells  contained  in  the  germ.  In  making  this  examina- 
tion what  appearance  did  the  interior  of  the  germ  present,  when 
exposed' by  cutting  it  horizontally'?  You  saw  there  minute 
bodies  of  a  pale  green  colour,  and  an  apparently  homogeneous 

Receptacle — Different  kinds  of  receptacles — Fruit,  the  two  principal  parts — 
Derivation  and  signification  of  the  word  pericarp — Progress  of  the  fruit  con- 
sidered. 

10* 


114  PERICARP  AND  SEED. 

nature ;  each  of  these  is  called  an  ovule*  and  their  outer  cover 
ing,  an  ovary.  These  ovules,  before  the  fertilization  of  the 
germ  by  the  pollen,  are  scarcely  perceptible ;  after  this  period, 
and  the  fading  of  the  corolla,  the  ovules  increase  in  size,  and 
the  embryo  and  other  parts  which  constitute  the  seed  become 
manifest.  The  ovary  enlarges  with  the  growth  of  the  ovules; 
the  use  of  this  covering  is  not  confined  to  the  mere  protection 
of  the  seeds  from  injury,  but  it  is  furnished  with  glands,  which 
secrete  such  juices  as  are  necessary  for  the  growth  and  de- 
velopement  of  the  ovules.  As  the  ovary  becomes  more  inatun- 
it  takes  the  name  ofpericarj).  Pericarps  in  their  growth  be- 
come either  woody  or  pulpy ;  the  letter  absorb  oxygen  ga- 
•  throw  off  carbonic  acid;  saccharine  juices  are  elaborated  in 
their  cellular  integument.  In  another  stage,  the  pulpy  sub- 
stance passes  through  a  slight  fermentation,  the  organization 
is  affected,  the  juices  sour,  the  pulp  decomposes  and  putrefac- 
tion ensues.  Such  is  the  change  which  you  may  see  in  the 
orange,  apple,  &c.  during  their  progress  towards  maturity  and 
decay. 

Pericarp  and  Seed. 

The  germ  being  fertilized,  the  piirts  of  the  flower  which  are 
not  necessary  for  the  growth  of  the  fruit,  usually  fade,  and 
either  fall  off,  or  wither  away.  The  germ  continues  to  enlarge 
until  it  arrives  at  perfection.  Every  kind  of  fruitf  you  can  see 
lias  been  once  but  the  germ  of  a  flower.  The  size  of  fruit  is 
not  usually  proportioned  to  that  of  the  vegetable  which  produ- 
ced it.  The  pumpkin  and  the  gourd  grow  upon  slender  her- 
baceous plants,  while  the  large  oak  produces  but  an  acorn. 

Every  pericarp  is  formed  of  a  parenchymous  substance ;  this 
substance  is  surrounded  externally  by  a  cuticle  called  the  epi- 
carp,  internally  by  a  membrane  called  the  endocarp,  and  an  in- 
termediate part  called  the  mesocarp.  In  a  peach, for  example. 
the  kernel  is  the  seed  ;  the  fleshy  substance  the  pericarp;  the 
skin  is  the  epicarp ;  the  pulpy  cellular  substance,  which  ab- 
sorbs a  great  quantity  of  sap  and  constitutes  the  principal  part 
of  the  fruit,  is  the  mesocarp;  the  shell,  deprived  of  moisture 
and  nourishment  by  the  absorbtion  of  the  mesocarp,  and  thus 
contracted  in  its  fibres  and  rendered  dry  and  tough,  is  the  en- 
docarp. 

*  From  ovum,  an  r,gg. 

t  The  term  fruit,  in  common  Inn'ru.'ure,  is  limited  to  pulpy  fruits  which  arc- 
proper  for  food  ;  but  in  a  botanical  sense,  the  fruit  includes  the  seeds  and  peri- 
carps of  all  vegetables. 

Ovules — Ovary — Use  of  the  ovary — Its  name  in  a  mature  state — Pulpy  peri- 
carps— Germ — Size  of  fruit  not  in  proportion  to  the  plant  that  produces  it — 
Epicarp— Endocarp — Mesocarp. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  FRUITS.  115 

The  pericarp  consists  of  different  parts,  as, 

1st.  Valves  or  external  pieces,  which  form  the  sides  of  the 
seed  vessels.  If  a  pericarp  is  formed  of  but  one  piece  it  is  uni- 
valved;  the  chesnut  is  of  this  kind.  A  pericarp  with  two 
valves  is  said  to  be  bivalved,  as  a  pea-pod.  The  pericarp  of 
the  violet  is  trivalved,  that  of  the  stramonium  quadrivalved. 
Most  valves  separate  easily  when  the  fruit  is  ripe  ;  this  separa- 
tion is  known  by  the  term  dehiscence. 

2d.  Sutures  or  seams,  are  lines  which  show  the  union  of 
valves  ;  at  their  seams  the  valves  separate  in  the  mature  stage 
of  the  plant ;  they  are  very  distinct  in  the  pod  which  has  two. 

3d.  Partitions  or  dissepiments,  are  internal  membranes  which 
divide  the  pericarp  into  different  cells :  these  are  longitudinal 
when  they  extend  from  the  base  to  the  summit  of  the  pericarp ; 
th6y  are  transverse  when  they  extend  from  one  side  to  the 
other. 

4th.  Column  or  columella,  the  axis  of  the  fruit ;  this  is  the 
central  point  of  union  of  the  partitions  of  the  seed  vessels ;  it 
may  be  seen  distinctly  in  the  core  of  an  apple.  This  was  no- 
ticed under  the  head  of  receptacles ;  it  is  the  receptacle  of  the 
fruit. 

5th.  Cells,  are  divisions  made  by  the  dissepiments,  and  con- 
tain  the  seeds ;  their  number  is  seldom  variable  in  the  same 
genus  of  plants,  and  therefore  serves  as  an  important  generic 
distinction. 

6th.  Receptacle,  is  that  part  of  the  pericarp  to  which  the 
seed  remains  attached  until  its  perfect  maturity ;  this  organ, 
by  means  of  connecting  fibres,  conveys  to  the  seed  for  its  nour- 
ishment juices  elaborated  by  the  pericarp. 

Some  plants  are  destitute  of  a  pericarp,  as  in  the  labiate 
flowers,  the  compound  flowers,  and  the  grasses ;  in  these  cases 
the  seeds  lie  in  the  bottom  of  the  calyx,  which  performs  the  of- 
fice of  a  pericarp. 

MirbeVs  classification  of  Fruits  or  Pericarps. 

Mirbel  has  divided  the  fruits  of  all  phenogamous  plants  into 
two  classes ;  1st.  gymnocarps,  which  include  all  such  as  are 
not  masked  or  covered  by  any  strange  organ,  or  form  no  union 
which  conceals  their  true  character.  2nd.  angiocarps,  which 
include  all  fruits  covered  by  any  strange  organ,  which  dis- 
guises them  from  observation. 

Valves — Sutures — Partitions,  or  dissepiments — Column — Cells — Receptacle 
of  the  pericarp— Pericarp  sometimes  wanting— Mirbel's  two  grand  divisions  of 
fruit. 


116 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  FRUITS. 


CLASS  1.     GYMNOCARPS, 
Or  fruits  not  concealed. 

ORDER  1st.     CARCERULARES  (from  career,  a  prison),  simple 
fruits  which  never  open  spontaneously. 

This  order  includes  the  fruits  of  syngenesious  plants,  of  the 
grasses,  fyc. 

Fig.  68. 

Cypsda  (Fig.  68),  repre- 
sents a  fruit  of  this  genus  ;  it 
is  of  the  syngenesious  family  ; 
the  pericarp  (a)  is  turbinute 
(shaped  like  a  top);  its  sur- 
face is  pubescent  and  furrow. 
« « 1 :  it  is  /' ndehiscent  (not  O{>en- 
ing  when  ripe),  and  monosper- 
mous  (having  one  seed) ;  t he- 
egret  (c)  is  sessile  and  plumose. 
The  embryo  is  dycutyledoncvs 
and  fleshy.  At  b,  is  the  same  pericarp,  cut  longitudinally  and 
exposing  an  inner  half  of  one  of  the  cotyledons. 

Cerion,  is  the  fruit  of  corn  and  the  grasses  ;  in  this  genus  the 
embryo  is  situated  upon  the  side  of  the  seed. 

Carcerula,  the  characters  of  this  genus  are  variable:    tin 
buck-wheat  (polygonum)  is  one  example. 

Fig.  69. 

ORDER     2d.       ('  .     simple 

fruits,  having  capsules  which  open  when 
in  a  mature  state. 

Capsule.     You  see  here  (Fig.  60),  a 
capsular  fruit ;  it  is  the  seed  of  the  mar- 
Q  lily  (Li H  :  "  ivpre- 

sents  the  r  .  .  -  it  appears  in  ;i 

mature  state;    I  the  same,  cut  trans- 
•ly,  showing  the  .seeds. 


Among  the  genera  in  this  order,  are, 

Legume,  which  is  a  bivalved  pericarp,  having  its  seeds  at- 


Order  Carcerulares— Genera  belonging  to  this  order— Genera  in  the  order 
Capsulares — Describe  the  Legume. 


GYMNOCARPS. 


117 


tached  to  one  of  its  sutures  ;  as  the  bean  and  pea.     Fig.  70, 

a,  represents  a  legume,  the  fruit  of  the  genus  Astragalus;  b 

represents  the  same  cut  transversely  in  order  to  show  the  cells. 

Fig.  70. 


Fig.  71. 


Silique,  a  bivalved  pericarp,  having 
its  seeds  attached  to  each  valve  ;  as  the 
pods  of  cabbage  and  mustard.  Fig.  71,. 
a,  represents  a  silique,  the  fruit  of  the 
SINAPIS  alba  (white  mustard);  this  is 
said  to  be  rostrate,  terminating  like  a 
bird's  beak ;  b  represents  a  globular  seed ; 
c  the  same  magnified ;  d  shows  the  seed 
dividing,  and  the  embryo  making  its  ap- 
pearance. The  sillicula  is  a  variety  of 
the  same  genus. 


Pyxides  (from  puxis,  a  box),  having  its 
capsule  open  horizontally,  like  a  box ;  as  the 
bachelor's  button  (GOMPHRENA  globosa). 
This  genus  may  be  illustrated  by  a  fruit  of 
the  genus  Lecyihis  (Fig.  72,  a) ;  b  represents 
the  lid  of  the  fruit. 


ORDER  3d.  Dieresilia  (from  diaresis,  division),  contains  sim- 
ple fruits,  which  divide  into  many  parts  when  ripe. 

The  Silique— The  Pyxides— Order  Dieresilia. 


118 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  FRUITS. 


In  this  order  is  the  genus  cremorcarp  (from  krejnao,  to  sus- 
pend, and  karposj  fruit),  having  a  pericarp  divisible  into  two 
seeds,  as  the  coriander,  parsley,  &c.  The  other  genera  in  this 
order  are, 

Regniate  (from  regma,  opening  with  noise),  containing  many 
seeds,  which  are  enclosed  by  two  valves,  opening  by  an  elastic 
movement,  as  euphorbia. 

Dieresil,  a  variable  genus,  containing  such  fruits  in  the  or- 
der Dieresilia  as  do  not  properly  come  under  the  two  other 
divisions,  as  the  nasturtion,  geranium,  &c. 

Fig.  73.  You  see  here 

(Fig.  78),  a  fruit 
of  the  order  Die- 
I  resilia ;  it  belongs 
I  to  the  genus  Reg- 
mate.  It  natu- 
rally divides  into 
four  seeds ;  a  rep- 
resents the  entire  fruit,  and  b  the  same  cut  transversely,  shew- 
ing its  four  seeds. 

ORDER  4th.  Etairionnair  (from  etairoi,  associates),  con- 
taining compound  fruits,  proceeding  from  a  germ  to  which  the 
style  adheres ;  the  genera  are, 

Double  Follicle,  as  in  the  milk  weed  (asclepias),  having  two 
follicles,  each  formed  of  one  valve,  folded  lengthwise, 

Etairon,  having  many  seeds  ranged  round  the  imaginary 
axis  of  the  flower,  as  the  ranunculus  and  anemone. 


Fig.  74. 


Here  is  the  fruit  (Fig.  74)  of  the  Aco- 
nitum  (monk's  hood),  which  belongs  to 
this  order ;  it  is  composed  of  three  pods 
united  in  one  compound  fruit ;  a  shows 
>ne  of  the  valves  in  a  dehiscent  state  ;  b 
represents  a  seed  cut  longitudinally. 


ORDER  5th.     Cenobionnair,  (from  koinobion,  a  community) 

Genera  in  the  order  Dieresilia — Genus  Regmate — Dieresil — Order  Etairion- 
nair— Genera  in  the  order  Etairionnair— Double  Follicle — Etairon — Describe 
the  fruit  of  the  Aconitum— Order  Cenobionnair. 


GYMNOCARPS. 


119 


compound  fruits  without  valves  or  sutures,  proceeding  from 
germs  without  any  styles  ;  this  order  contains  but  one  genus, 
Flg>  75>  Cenobion,  which  includes 

fruit  of  the  labiate  plants  and 
some  others.  This  cut  (Fig. 
75),  represents  the  pericarp  of 
the  genus  Gompliia ;  it  is  com- 
posed  of  five  companions  (a)  as 
Mirbel  calls  each  of  the  one- 
celled  divisions  w^iich  stand 
around  an  ovoid  germ,  desti- 
tute of  any  style ;  b  represents 
one  of  these  divisions  cut  vertically;  it  contains  one  seed. 

ORDER  6th.     Drupaces,  simple,  succulent  fruits,  containing 
a  nut.     This  order  has  but  one  genus, 

Drupe,  which  varies  in  form ;  the  apricot  is  round,  the  plum 
elliptical.     The  AMYGDALis_perszca,  or  peach,  (Fig.  76,  a),  is  a 
Fig.  76. 


succulent  drupe,  of  a  roundish  form,  and  furrowed  on  the  side ; 
the  nut  is  an  ellipsoid,  long,  one-celled  and  one  seeded  ;  b  rep- 
resents the  peach  deprived  of  one  half  of  its  pulpy  exterior,* 
and  exposing  the  nut ;  c  represents  the  nut  divested  of  one  of 
its  valves  and  showing  the  seed  (#). 

ORDER  7th.  Baccati,  (from  bacca  a  berry)  simple,  succu- 
lent fruits,  containing  many  separate  seeds.  The  genera  in 
this  order  are  the  following  : 

Pyridion,  (from  perideo  to  lie  around) ;  this  genus  has  its 
fruit  crowned  with  the  adhering  calyx.  The  pericarp  is 
fleshy,  and  has  many  cells,  each  of  which  contains  one  or  more 
seeds  ;  the  embryo  has  two  cotyledons.  This  genus  contains 
the  apple  and  pear.  The  Apple,  (Mains  communis),  (Fig.  77,) 

*  Called  panixtern. 


Genus  Cenobion — Order  Drupaces — Genus  Drupe — Order  Baccati — Genera 
of  the  order  Baccati— Pyridion. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  FRUITS. 

Fig.  77. 
C 


has  a  round  fleshy   pericarp,  crowned  with  the  calyx;  tin 
seeds  are  enclosed  in  five  cells,  ranged  around  in  the  centre ; 
the  cells  are  composed  of  membranaceous  valves.     The  s 
are  tunicated  or  coated ;  a  represents  an  entire  Pyridion ;  b  the 
same  cut  vertically  ;  and  c  the  same  cut  transversely.* 

Pepon  (hompepon  a  melon),  having  a  pulpy  interior,  contain- 
ing many  seeds  ;  the  cucumber,  melon,  &c.  belong  to  this  ge- 
nus. Here  is  the  fruit  (Fig.  78)  CUCUMIS  anguria,  sometimes 

Fig.  78. 
L  A  i, 

a 


called  prickly  cucumber ;  a  represents  the  entire  pcpon,  which 
is  spinous,  three-celled  and  many  seeded :  as  is  shown  by  th<> 
same  fruit  cut  transversely,  as  at  b  ;  c  represents  a  seed  which 
is  tunicated  and  dicotyledonous :  d  the  same  cut  vertically. 

Bacca,  containing  all  the  fruits  of  this  order  not  found  in  the 
other  genera.  The  currant,  whortleberry,  orange,  barberry, 
pericarp  of  the  potatoe,  grape,  &c.  are  found  here.  In  this 

*  A  singular  fact  is  observable  in  the  fruit  of  the  apple :  when  cut  in  slices 
transversely,  it  exhibits  in  its  substance  an  exact  representation  of  the  five  pe- 
tals which  existed  in  the  flower ;  I  have  never  in  any  botanical  work  met  with 
a  notice  of  this  phenomenon,  and  know  not  on  what  physiological  principles 
it  can  be  explained. 


Pepon— Dacca. 


ANGIOCARPS. 


121 


Fig.  79. 


a 


cut  (Fig.  79),  is  a 
spherical  berry,  a, 
of  the  genus  Ribes; 
it  is  known  by  the 
name  of  the  wild 
gooseberry  ;  the 
fruit  is  many  seed- 
ed, as  may  be  seen 
at  b,  which  repre- 
sents it  as  cut 


vertically;  c.is  the  same  cut  transversely. 


CLASS  II.     ANGIOCARPS. 
Fruits  which  are  covered  by  seme  foreign  envelope. 

This  class  is  divided  into  five  genera,  as  follows : 
1st.  Strobilum  or  cone,  a  collection  of  fruits  concealed  by 
scales,  whose  union  forms  a  globular  or  conical  body,  as  the 
juniper,  pine,  &c.     Here  is  a  representation  (Fig.  80)  of  the 

Fig.  80. 


fruit  of  the  Pinus  (pine)  ;  a  is  an  entire  strobilum ;  b  is  the 
same,  cut  vertically. 

2d.  Calybion  (from  Kalubion,  a  little  cabin)  ;  fruits  of  this 
genus  are  composed  of  glandular  pericarps,  contained  in  a  pe- 
culiar kind  of  bract ;  in  the  oak,  it  is  partly  concealed  ;  in  the 
beech  it  is  wholly  concealed,  and  also  in  the  yew  (Taxus)  ;  in 
the  latter  are  two  bracts,  one  enclosing  the  other  ;  the  exteri- 

Enumerate  the  orders  in  the  class  Gymnocarps,  with  the  genera  of  each — 
Describe  the  class  Angiocarps— Strobilum — Calybion. 


122 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  FRUITS. 


or  one  is  succulent  and  of  an  orange  red ;  the  interior  hard 
and  woody,  encloses  the  fruit. 

Here  is  a  representation  (Fig.  81)  of  an  acorn,  which  is  the 
Fig.  81. 


fruit  of  the  oak  (QUERCUS  rdbur) ;  it  stands  in  a  hemispherical 
cup,  formed  of  imbricated  scales.  The  pericarp,  called  a 
gland,  is  ellipsoid,  coriaceous,  one-celled,  and  one-seeded. 
The  seed  is  tunicated ;  the  embryo  is  dicotyledonous  ;  the  co- 
tyledons are  large  and  fleshy ;  a,  an  entire  Calybion ;  b,  the 
cup,  (d  two  abortive  glands) ;  c  the  gland  cut  vertically,  show- 
ing the  embryo  near  its  apex. 

Fig.  82. 


3d.  Sycone  (from  sucon,  a  fig).  This 
genus  presents  fruits  enclosed  by  a  fleshy 
involucrum  or  receptacle ;  as  the  fig. 
Fig.  82,  a,  represents  a  sycone  or  a  fig, 
open  at  the  summit;  b  the  same  cut 
transversely. 


Describe  the  fruk  of  the  oak— Sycone. 


ANGIOCARPS. 


123 


Fig.  83.  4th.    Sorose  (from  soros,  a 

collection)  ;  this  genus  contains 
many  fruits  united  in  a  spike, 
and  covered  with  floral  en- 
velopes in  a  manner  represent- 
ing a  berry,  as  the  mulberry. 
Fig.  83,  a,  represents  the  fruit 
of  the  MORUS  rubra  (red  mul- 
berry) which  is  an  example  of 
the  genus  soros  ;  it  is  of  an  ob- 
long form  ;  each  little  drupe  is 
surrounded  by  a  succulent  peri- 
carp ;  the  nut  is  one-seeded  ;  b 
represents  a  detached  perianth 
containing  a  drupeole  (little 
drupe)  ;  c  drupeole  ;  d  a  nut  ; 
e  the  same,  cut  transversely  ;  f 
the  embryo. 

Synopsis  of  MirbeVs  artificial  classes  of  orders,  and  genera  of 
fruits  or  pericarps. 

CLASS  I.     Fruits  uncovered,  or  GYMNOCARPS. 

ORDER  I.     CARCELARES,  simple  fruits,  remaining  closed. 

C  1.  Cypsela, 
Genera,  <  2.  Cerion, 

{  3.  Carcerula. 
ORDER  2.  CAPSULARES,  simple  fruits  which  open  at  maturity. 

II.  Capsule, 
2.  Legume, 
3.  Silique  and  Silicic, 
4.  Pyxides. 

ORDER  3.     DIERESILIA,  simple   fruits,  which   divide  into 
many  parts  when  ripe. 

C  1.  Cremocarp, 
Genera,  <  2.  Regmate, 

(  3.  Dieresil. 

ORDER  4.     ETAIRONNAIR,  compound  fruits,  proceeding  from 
a  germ  to  which  the  style  adheres. 

Genera  $  L  Double  Follicle> 
m'  I  2.   Etairon. 

ORDER  5.  CENOBIONNAIR,  compound  fruits,  proceeding  from 
a  germ  not  bearing  the  style. 

Genus,  <[  1.  Cenobion. 

ORDER  6.     DRUPACES,  simple  and  succulent  fruits,  contain- 
ed in  a  nut. 


Sorose. 


1^4  CLASSIFICATION  OF  FRUITS. 

Genus, -j  1.  Drupe. 

ORDER  7.  BACCATI,  simple,  succulent  fruits,  containing 
many  separate  seeds. 

f  1.  Pyridion, 
Genera,  <  2.  Pepon, 
(  3.  Berry. 
CLASS  II.     Fruits  uncovered,  or  ANGIOCARPS. 

II.  Calybion, 
2.  Strobilum, 
3.  Sycone, 
4.  Sorose. 

Linnceus'  classification  of  fruits. 

Linnaeus  divided  pericarps  or  fruits  into  the  nine  following 
classes ;  Capsule,  Silique,  Legume,  Follicle,  Drupe,  Nut,  Pome, 
Berry  and  8irobilum. 

1st.  CAPSULE,  signifies  a  little  chest  or  casket ;  this  is  a  hol- 
low pericarp,  which  spontaneously  opens  by  pores,  as  the  pop- 
py,  or  -by  scales,  as  in  the  mullein.  The  capsules  in  opening 
divide  externally  into  one  or  more  pieces,  called  valves;  the 
internal  divisions  of  the  capsule  are  called  cells;  these  are  the 
chambers  appropriated  for  the  reception  of  the  seeds ;  accord- 
ing  to  the  number  of  these  cells,  the  capsule  is  one-celled,  two- 
celled,  &c.  The  membranes  by  which  the  capsule  is  divided 
into  cells  are  called  dissepiments',  or  partitions ;  these  partitions 
are  either  parallel  to  the  valves  or  contrary.  The  columella 
is  the  central  pillar  in  a  capsule,  and  is  the  part  which  connects 
the  several  internal  partitions  with  the  seed.  It  takes  its  rise 
from  the  receptacle,  and  has  the  seed  fixed  to  it  all  around.* 

2d.  SILIQUE,  or  sihqua,  is  a  two-valved  pericarp  or  pod, 
with  the  seeds  attached  alternately  to  its  opposite  edge,  as  mus- 
tard and  radish.  The  proper  silique  is  two-celled,  being  fur- 
nished with  a  partition  which  runs  the  whole  length  of  this 
kind  of  pericarp ;  there  are  some  exceptions  to  this,  as  in  the 
celandine.  Silicic  (silicula,  a  little  pod,)  is  distinguished  by 
being  shorter  than  the  proper  silique  ;  it  is  almost  round,  as  in 
shepherd's  purse.  This  difference  in  the  form  of  the  Silique 
and  Silicic  is  the  foundation  of  the  distinction  of  the  orders  in 
the  class  Tetradynamia.f 

3d.  LEGUME,  is  a  pericarp  of  two  valves,  with  the  seeds  at- 
tached only  to  one  suture  or  seam ;  as  the  pea.  In  this  cir- 
cumstance it  differs  from  the  Silique,  which  has  its  seeds  affixed 

*  The  capsule  of  Linnaeus  corresponds  to  the  order  Capsulares  of  Jussieu's 
division. 

t  See  genus  Silique,  asdesciibed  under  the  order  Capsulares  of  Jussieu. 

Linnaeus'  division  of  pericarps — Capsule— Silique— Legume. 


ANGIOCARPS.  125 

to  both  sutures.  The  word  pod  is  used  in  common  language 
for  both  these  species  of  pericarp.  Plants  which  produce  the 
legume  are  called  leguminous.  The  greater  number  of  these 
plants  are  in  the  16th  class,  Diadelphia.  The  tamarind  is  a 
legume  filled  with  pulp,  in  which  the  seeds  are  lodged.* 

4th.  FOLLICLE,  is  a  one-valved  pericarp,  which  opens  longi- 
tudinally on  one  side,  having  its  seed  loose  within  it,  that  is,  not 
bound  to  the  suture.  We  have  examples  of  this  in  the  dog's 
bane  (Apocynum),  which  is  a  double  follicle,  and  in  the  milk 
weed  ( Asdepias).^ 

5th.  DRUPE,  a  stone  fruit,  is  a  kind  of  pericarp  which  has  no 
valve,  and  contains  a  nut  or  stone,  within  which  there  is  a  ker- 
nel. The  Drupe  is  mostly  a  moist  succulent  fruit ;  as  in  the 
plum,  the  cherry,  and  the  peach.  The  nut  or  stone,  in  the 
drupe,  is  a  kind  of  woody  cup  commonly  containing  a  single 
kernel,  called  the  Nucleus ;  this  hard  shell,  thus  enveloping  the 
kernel,  is  called  the  Putamen ;  it  may  be  seen  in  the  stone  of  a 
cherry  or  peach.  J 

6th.  NUT,  is  a  seed  covered  with  a  shell,  resembling  the  cap- 
sule in  some  respects  and  the  drupe  in  others ;  as  the  walnut, 
chesnut,  &c. 

7th.  POME,  is  a  pulpy  pericarp  without  valves,  but  contain- 
ing a'rnembranous  capsule,  with  a  number  of  cells,  which  con- 
tain the  seeds.  This  species  of  pericarp  has  no  external  open- 
ing or  valve.  The  apple,  pear,  quince,  the  gourd,  the  cucum- 
ber, and  the  melon,  furnish  us  with  examples  of  this  kind  of 
pericarp.  With  respect  to  form,  the  Pome  is  oblong,  ovate, 
globular,  &c.  the  form  of  fruits  being  much  varied  by  climate 
and  soil.  You  know  that  apples  are  not  uniform  in  their  size 
or  figure.  With  respect  to  the  number  of  cells  also,  the  apple 
is  variable. § 

8th.  BERRY,  is  a  succulent  pulpy  pericarp,  without  valves, 
and  containing  naked  seeds,  or  seeds  with  no  other  covering 
than  the  pulp  which  surrounds  it;  the  seeds  in  the  berry  are 
sometimes  dispersed  promiscuously  through  the  pulpy  substance, 
but  are  more  generally  placed  upon  receptacles  within  the 
pulp.  A  compound  berry  consists  of  several  single  berries, 
each  containing  a  seed,  united  together ;  as  in  the  raspberry. 
Each  of  the  separate  parts  is  called  an  'Acinus,  or  grain.  The 
orange  and  lemon  are  berries  with  a  thick  coat.  There  are 
some  kinds  of  berries,  usually  so  called,  that  seem  scarce  enti- 

*  See  Legume,  under  the  order  Capsulares  of  Jussieu. 

t  See  order  4th,  in  the  class  Gymnocarps. 

t  See  order  6th,  in  the  class  Gymnocarps. 

$  See  order  7th,  genus  second  of  the  class  Gymnocarps. 

follicle— Drupe— Nut  —Pome — Berry. 
11* 


126  SEED. 

tied  to  the  name ;  for  the  pulp  is  not  properly  a  part  of  the  fruit, 
but  originates  from  some  other  organ.* 

In  the  mulberryf  and  strawberry  the  calyx  becomes  colour- 
ed  and  very  juicy,  surrounded  by  seeds  like  a  real  berry.  Some 
botanists,  in  describing  the  strawberry,  say  that  what  is  com- 
monly  called  the  berry,  is  but  a  pulpy  receptacle,  studded  with 
naked  seeds.  In  the  figj  the  whole  fruit  is  a  juicy  calyx,  or 
common  receptacle,  containing  in  its  cavity  innumerable  flo- 
rets, each  of  which  has  a  proper  calyx  of  its  own,  which  be- 
comes pulpy,  and  invests  the  seed,  as  in  the  mulberry.  The 
paper  mulberry  of  China,  which  is  analogous  to  it,  is  an  inter- 
mediate genus  between  the  two,  being,  as  it  might  seem,  a  fig 
laid  open,  but  without  any  pulp  in  the  common  receptacle. 

9th.  STROBILUM,  a  cone,  is  a  catkin  or  ament  hardened  and 
enlarged  into  a  seed  vessel,  as  in  the  pine ;  this  is  called  an  ag- 
gregate, or  compound  pericarp.  In  the  most  perfect  examples 
of  this  kind  of  fruit  the  seeds  are  closely  enveloped  by  the  scales 
as  by  a  capsule.  The  Strobilum  is  oblong  in  the  pine,  round 
in  the  cypress,  very  small  in  the  alder  and  birch. § 

The  time  for  examining  fruits  is  after  the  flowers  have  pass- 
ed away.  When  you  have  understood  the  simple  division  of 
fruits  we  have  now  given,  you  will  not  be  at  a  loss  to  which 
of  these  classes  to  refer  them,  when  you  see  an  apple,  a  walnut, 
a  currant,  or  a  pine  apple.  You  may  gratify  the  mental  appe- 
tite by  examining  their  scientific  characters.  It  would  seem 
more  rational  for  young  persons  to  examine  the  number  of  cells 
or  seeds  in  an  apple,  with  a  view  to  a  classical  arrangement, 
than  to  count  the  seeds  with  the  foolish  idea  that  there  is  some 
charm  in  a  certain  number,  which  will  throw  light  upon  their 
future  destiny. 


LECTURE   XV. 

The  Seed. 

WE  have  now  traced  the  plant,  from  the  root  through  all  its 
various  organs,  until  we  have  arrived  at  that  part,  which  is  a 
link  in  the  chain  of  vegetable  existence,  connecting  the  old  and 
new  plant ;  if  this  were  destroyed,  if  the  seeds  of  plants  were 
no  longer  perfected,  what  changes  would  the  whole  face  of  na- 
ture present !  The  earth  in  one  year  would  be  stripped  of  the 
whole  tribe  of  annual  plants;  in  another  the  biennial  plants 

*  See  genus  Bacca,  order  7th  of  the  class  Gymnocarps. 
t  See  genus  Sorose.in  the  class  Angiocarps. 
J  See  genus  Sycone,  of  the  class  Angiocarps 
'  }  See  genus  Strobilum,  of  the  class  Angiocarps. 

Strobilum— Proper  time  for  examining  fruits — Appearances  which  nature 
would  present  if  the  seed  were  no  longer  perfected. 


SEED;  127 

would  vanish,  leaving  a  still  more  cheerless  vacancy ;  the  pe- 
rennial would,  year  after  year,  disappear,  until  (if  we  could 
suppose  our  own  lives  to  be  prolonged  in  such  a  strange  state  of 
nature,)  we  should  behold  the  earth  one  vast  scene  of  vegeta- 
ble ruin  ;  occasionally  here  and  there  a  venerable  oak  or  an  an- 
cient pine  would  stand  in  solitary  grandeur,  the  mournful  rem- 
nants of  a  once  beautiful  and  fertile  vegetable  kingdom. 

But  such  a  sad  spectacle  the  earth  will  never  present,  for  we 
have  the  promise  of  God  himself,  that  "  while  the  earth  remain- 
eth,  seed  time  and  harvest  shall  not  cease." 

We  have*  seen,  in  the  progress  of  our  enquiries,  that  while  the 
present  plant  is  diffusing  around  it  beauty  and  fragrance,  ad- 
ministering to  the  necessities  and  luxuries  of  man,  the  watchful 
care  of  that  Being  who  never  slumbers  nor  sleeps,  is  by  a  slow, 
but  certain  progress,  perfecting  that  part  which  is  destined  to 
continue  the  species,  and  which  is,  "  the  sole  end  and  aim  of  all 
the  organs  of  fructification."* 

The  seed  is  that  internal  part  of  the  fruit  which  envelopes 
the  complete  rudiment  of  a  new  plant,  similar  to  that  from 
which  it  received  its  existence.  Seeds  are  various  in  their 
form ;  the  mustard  is  globular ;  some  species  of  beans  are  ob- 
long ;  the  cocoa  nut  is  ovoid ;  the  buck  wheat  is  angular,  &c. 
The  seed  consists  of  three  principal  parts,  viz.  the  eye,  husk 
and  kernel. 

1st.  The  eye  or  hilum  is  the  scar  formed  by  the  separation  of 
the  membrane  or  thread  which  connected  the  seed  with  the  peri- 
carp, and  conveyed  to  the  former  the  necessary  nourishment. 
This  connecting  membrane  is  usually  very  short ;  but  in  the 
magnolia  and  some  other  plants  it  is  several  inches  in  length. 
When  the  seed  is  fully  ripe,  the  connexion  between  it  and  the  pe- 
ricarp, ceases  by  the  withering  and  separation  of  the  connecting 
membrane,  leaving  upon  the  outer  surface  of  the  seed,  the  mark 
of  its  insertion.  This  eye  or  scar  is  very  conspicuous  in 
Fig.  84.  the  bean,  which  also  exhibits  the  pore 

through  which  the  nourishment  was  con- 
veyed to  the  internal  parts  of  the  seed. 
That  part  of  the  seed  which  contains  the 
eye  is  called  the  base ;  the  part  opposite, 
is  called  the  apex. 

Fig.  84  represents  the  garden  bean  ; 
it  is  an  oblong,  tunicated  seed  ;  between 
its  two  thick  cotyledons  ;  at  0,  may  be 
a      seen  the  hilum. 

*  Linnaeus. 

Seed  contains  the  rudiment  of  a  new  plant— Forms  of  seeds— Parts  of  the 
seed — Eye. 


128  SEED. 

2d.  The  Husk,  is  the  outer  coat  of  the  seed  which,  on  boil- 
ing, becomes  separate ;  as  in  peas,  beans,  Indian  corn,  &c.  ; 
this  skin  is  also  called  the  spermoderm  from  the  Greek  words, 
spsrma,  signifying  seed,  and  derma  skin.  The  spermoderm  or 
skin  of  the  seed  consists  of  three  coats,  analogous  to  the  three 
divisions  of  the  pericarp  ;  the  external  skin,  called  the  testa  or 
cuticle  corresponds  to  the  epicarp  or  outer  covering  of  the  peri- 
carp ;  the  cellular  tissue  called  mesosperm,  corresponds  to  the 
mesocarp,  or  middle  of  the  pericarp  ;  and  the  internal  skin  or 
endosperm  corresponds  to  the  endocarp  or  inside  skin  of  the 
pericarp.* 

The  husk  surrounds  the  kernel ;  it  is  essential,  as  the  ker- 
nel which  was  originally  a  fluid,  could  not  have  been  formed 
withoutits  presence. 

3d.  The  Kernel,  includes  all  that  is  contained  within  the 
husk  or  spermoderm ;  it  is  also  called  the  neuckus  or  almond 
of  the  seed.  The  kernel  is  usually  composed  of  the  albumen, 
cotyledon  and  embryo.  The  Albumen  is  that  part  of  the  kernel 
which  invests  the  cotyledons  or  lobes,  and  is  thought  to  afford 
the  same  support  to  the  germinating  embryo,  that  the  white  of 
an  egg  does  to  a  chicken.  Both  in  respect  to  hardness  and 
colour,  the  albumen  in  many  seeds  greatly  resembles  the 
white  of  a  boiled  egg.  It  is  not  considered  an  essential  part 
of  the  seed,  because  it  is  sometimes  wanting ;  but  when  pre- 
sent it  supports  and  defends  the  embryo,  while  imprisoned  in 
the  seed,  and  serves  for  nutriment  when  it  begins  to  germinate. 
It  has  no  connexion  with  the  embryo,  and  is  always  so  distinct 
as  to  be  easily  detached  from  it.  Albumen  makes  up  the 
chief  part  of  some  seeds,  as  the  grasses,  corn,  &c.  ;  in  the  nut- 
meg, which  has  Very  small  cotyledons,  it  is  remarkable  for 
its  variegated  appearance  and  aromatic  quality.  It  chiefly 
abounds  in  plants  which  are  furnished  with  but  one  cotyledon. 
Fig.  85. 

Fig.  8  represents  the  same  seed  (the 
garden  bean)  as  seen  at  fig.  84 ;  it  hero 
shews  the  cotyledons  as  divested  of  the 
husk  ;  a  represents  the  cotyledons  ;  b 
and  c,  the  embryo ;  d  shews  the  petioles 
or  stems  of  the  cotyledons. 

Cotyledons  (from  a  Greek  word,  kotule, 
a  cavity),  are  the  thick  fleshy  lobes  of 
seeds,  which  contain  the  embryo.  In 
beans  they  grow  out  of  the  ground  in 

*  These  three  divisions  may  not  always  seem  distinct,  as  in  some  cases,  the 
mesogperm  is  scarcely  to  be  separated  from  the  cuticle. 

Husk— Spcrmoderm,  divisions — Cuticle — Mesosperm — Endosperm— Husk 
essential  —Kernel,  of  what  composed  ?— Albumen  —Cotyledons. 


SEED.  ,  129 

the  form  of  two  large  leaves.  Cotyledons  are  the  first  visible 
leaves  in  all  seeds,  almost  always  fleshy  and  spongy,  of  a  suc- 
culent and  nourishing  substance,  which  serves  for  the  food  of 
the  embryo  at  the  moment  of  its  germinating.  Nature  seems 
to  have  provided  the  cotyledons  to  nourish  the  plant  in  its  ten- 
der infancy.  After  seeing  their  young  charge  sufficiently 
vigorous  to  sustain  life  without  their  assistance,  the  cotyledons 
in  most  plants  wither  and  die.  The  number  of  cotyledons  va- 
ries in  different  plants,  and  there  are  some  plants  which  have 
none. 

Acotyledons,  are  those  plants  which  have  no  cotyledons  in 
their  seeds ;  such  as  the  cryptogamous  plants,  mosses,  &c. 

Mono-cotyledons,  such  as  have  one  cotyledon  or  lobe  in  the 
seed ;  as  the  grasses,  the  liliaceous  plants,  &c. 

Di-cotyledons',  such  plants  as  have  two  cotyledons :  they  in- 
clude the  greatest  proportion  of  vegetables  ;  as  the  leguminous, 
the  syngenesious,  &c. 

Poly -cotyledons,  those  plants  the  seeds  of  which  have  more 
than  two  lobes :  the  number  of  these  is  small ;  the  hemlock  and 
the  pine  are  examples. 

The  number  of  cotyledons  seldom  varies  in  the  same  family 
of  plants  :  it  has  therefore  been  assumed  by  some  botanists  as 
the  basis  of  classification  ;  but  there  are  difficulties  attending 
a  method  wholly  dependant  on  these  organs.  In  order  to  be 
certain  as  to  their  number,  it  is  necessary  to  examine  the  seed 
in  a  germinating  state  ;  this  is  often  difficult.  The  natural 
method  of  Jussieu  is  founded  upon  the  number  of  cotyledons. 

The  Embryo,  is  the  most  important  part  of  the  seed,  as  it 
forms  the  new  plant ;  all  other  parts  seem  but  subservient  to 
this.  The  embryo  has  been  called  the  Corculum,  or  heart : 
it  is  the  point  from  whence  the  life  and  organization  of  the  fu- 
ture plant  originate.  In  most  dicotyledonous  seeds,  as  the 
bean,  orange  and  apple,  the  embryo  may  be  plainly  discover- 
ed. Its  internal  structure,  before  it  begins  to  vegetate,  is  very 
simple,  consisting  of  a  uniform  substance,  enclosed  in  its  appro- 
priate bark  or  skin.  When  the  vital  principle  is  excited  to 
action,  vessels  are  formed,  and  parts  developed,  which  seemed 
not  previously  to  have  existed.  The  embryo  is  usually  central 
and  enclosed  by  the  cotyledons  :  sometimes  it  is  no  more  than  a 
mere  point  or  dot,  and  in  some  cases,  altogether  invisible  to  the 
naked  eye.  The  embryo  consists  of  two  parts.  » 

The  Plume,  which  is  the  ascending  part,  unfolding  itself  in- 
to herbage. 

What  are  Acotyledons  ?— Monocotyledons  ?  -Dicotyledons  ?— Polycotyle- 
dons  ?— Number  of  cotyledons  made  the  basis  of  classification— Embryo— Di- 
visions of  the  embryo. 


130 


SEED. 


The  RadickjOr  descending  part,  which 
unfolds  itself  into  roots.  At  Fig.  86  ap- 
pears the  embryo  in  a  germinating  state; 
a  represents  the  radicle,  b  the  plume,  c 
the  cord  by  which  the  plant  is  still  con- 
nected to  the  cotyledons,  and  receives 
from  them  its  nourishment. 

To  use  the  words  of  an  ancient  bota- 
nist, "  the  embryo  continues  imprisoned 
within  its  seed,  and  remains  in  a  profound 
sleep,  until  awakened  by  germination; 
it  meets  the  light  and  air  to  grow  into  a 
plant,  similar  to  its  parent. 

u  Lo  !  on  each  seed,  within  its  slender  rind, 
Life's  golden  threads  in  endless  circles  wind  : 
Maze  within  maze  the  lurid  webs  are  roll'd, 
And  as  they  burst,  the  living  flame  unfold. 
The  pulpy  acom,  ere  it  swells,  contains 
The  oak's  vast  branches  in  its  milky  veins, 
Each  ravel'd  bud,  fine  film,  and  fibre-line, 
Traced  with  nice  pencil  on  the  small  design. 
The  young  Narcissus,  in  its  bulb  compressed, 
Cradles  a  second  nestling  on  its  breast ; 
In  whose  fine  arms  a  younger  embryo  lies, 
Folds  its  thin  leaves,  and  shuts  its  floret-eyes; 
Grain  within  grain  successive  harvests  dwell, 
And  boundless  forests  slumber  in  a  shell."* 

There  are  various  appendages  which  may,  or  may  not  be 
present  without  injury  to  the  structure  of  the  seed. 

Aigrette,  or  egret ,  sometimes  called  pappus,  is  a  kind  qf  fea- 
thery crown  with  which  many  of  the  compound  flowers  are 
furnished,  evidently  for  the  purpose  of  disseminating  the  seed 
to  a  considerable  distance  by  means  of  winds  ;  as  the  dande- 
lion. It  includes  all  that  remains  on  the  top  of  the  seed  after 
the  corolla  is  removed. 

Stipe  is  a  thread  connecting  the  egret  with  the  seed.  The 
egret  is  said  to  be  sessile  when  it  has  no  stipe,  simple  when  it 
consists  of  a  bundle  of  hairs  without  branches,  plumose  when 
each  hair  has  other  little  hairs  arranged  along  its  sides,  like 

*  These  lines,  which  so  beautifully  set  forth  the  manner  in  which  the  embryo 
is  contained  within  the  seed  or  bulb,  are  not  entirely  philosophical  as  to  the 
fact  of  the  future  generations  lying  enfolded,  the  one  within  the  other;  it  is 
true,  that  we  may  in  many  seeds,  by  the  help  of  a  microscope,  discern  the  form 
of  the  future  plant,  and  even  the  embryo  flower  ;  but  we  cannot  believe  that, 
in  the  seed  of  that  embryo  flower,  is  the  miniature  image  of  another  plant,  which 
contains  another,  and  so  on  through  successive  generations ;  for  the  fact  is 
established  that  a  seed  does  not  produce  a  plant  without  being  fertilized  by  the 
pollen.  We  may  say  that  a  seed  contains  within  itself  the  elements  of  future 
generations ;  but  not  their  images,  except  that  of  the  immediate  plant  which  is 
to  issue  from  the  perfected  seed. 


Appendages  to  seeds— Egret— Stipe. 


SEED.  131 

the  beards  on  a  feather.     In  Fig.  87,  a  represents  the  capillary, 

Fig.  87. 


or  hair-like  egret ;  b  the  plumose,  or  feathery  egret ;  c  and  d 
show  the  style  remaining,  and  forming  a  train  as  in  the  virgin's 
bower  and  geum;  e  a  wing,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  fir;  and/ a 
sessile  egret. 

Gener-al  Remarks  upon  Seeds. 

The  number  of  seeds  in  different  plants  is  variable ;  some 
have  but  one  ;  some,  like  the  umbelliferous  plants,  have  two ; 
some  have  four,  as  in  the  rough  leaved  plants  ;  in  the  order 
Gynospermia,  of  the  class  Didynamia,  there  are  four  lying  na- 
ked in  each  calyx.  The  number  varies  from  these  to  thou- 
sands. A  stalk  of  indian  corn  is  said  to  have  produced,  in 
one  season,  two  thousand  seeds.  A  sunflower  four  thousand. 
A  capsule  of  the  poppy  has  been  found  to  contain  eight  thou- 
sand seeds.  It  has  been  calculated  that  a  single  thistle  seed 
will  produce,  at  the  first  crop,  twenty-four  thousand,  and  at  the 
second  crop,  at  this  rate,  five  hundred  and  seventy-six  millions. 
In  the  same  species  of  plants  the  number  of  seeds  is  often  found 
to  vary.  The  apple  and  many  others  might  be  given  as  ex- 
amples. 

Seeds,  according  as  they  vary  in  size,  have  been  divided 
into  four  kinds ;  large,  from  the  size  of  a  walnut  to  that  of  the 
cocoa  nut ;  middle  size,  neither  larger  than  a  hazle  nut,  nor 
smaller  than  a  millet  seed ;  small,  between  the  size  of  the  seeds 
of  a  poppy  and  a  bell  flower ;  minute,  like  dust  or  powder,  as 
in  the  ferns  and  mosses. 

When  a  pericarp  separates  itself  from  the  parent  plant,  or 
when  the  valves  of  the  fruit  open,  this  is  not  the  effect  of  vital  - 
activity,  but  a  proof  that  the  fruit  has  ceased  to  vegetate.    The 
fruit,  like  the  leaves  at  the  end  of  autumn,  losing  the  vital  prin- 
ciple, is  submitted  to  the  laws  which  govern  inorganized  matter. 

The  period  in  which  the  seeds  arrive  at  maturity,  marks  the 
period  of  the  life  of  annual  plants,  and  the  suspension  of  vege- 
tation in  woody  and  perennial  plants.  Nature,  in  favouring  by 
various  means,  the  dispersion  of  these  seeds,  presents  pheno- 

N umber  of  seeds  variable — Size  variable — Separation  of  the  pericarp  from 
the  plant. 


132  SEED. 

mena  worthy  of  our  admiration,  and  these  means  areas  varied 
as  the  species  of  seeds  which  are  spread  upon  the  surface  of 
the  earth. 

The  air,  winds,  rivers,  seas,  and  animals,  transport  seeds 
and  disperse  them  in  every  direction.  Seeds  provided  with 
feathery  crowns,  (egrets,)  as  the  dandelion  and  thistle ;  with 
wings,  as  the  maple  and  ash,  are  raised  into  the  air  and  even 
carried  across  the  seas.  Linnaeus  asserted  that  the  ERIGERON 
canadense  was  introduced  into  Europe  from  America,  by  seeds 
wafted  across  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  "  The  seeds,"  says  Lin- 
naeus,  "  embark  upon  the  rivers  which  descend  from  the  high- 
est mountains  of  Lapland,  and  arrive  at  the  middle  of  the 
plains,  and  the  coasts  of  the  seas.  The  ocean  has  thrown 
even  upon  the  coasts  of  Norway,  the  nuts  of  the  mahogany, 
and  the  fruit  of  the  cocoa  nut  tree,  borne  on  its  waves  from 
the  far  distant  tropical  regions ;  and  this  wonderful  voyage  has 
been  performed  without  injury  to  the  vital  energy  of  the 
seeds." 

Some  fruits,  endowed  with  elasticity,  throw  their  seeds  to  a 
considerable  distance.  In  the  oat,  and  hi  the  greater  number 
of  ferns,  this  elasticity  is  in  the  calyx.  In  the  Impatiens,  in 
the  cucumber,  (Cucumis^)  and  many  others,  it  resides  in  the 
capsule.  The  pericarp  of  the  IMPATIENS,  (sometimes  called 
touch-me-not,  and  jewel- weed,)  consists  of  one  cell  with  five 
divisions  ;  each  of  which,  when  the  seeds  are  ripe,  upon  being 
touched,  suddenly  folds  itself  in  a  spiral  form,  leaps  from  the 
stem,  and,  by  means  of  its  elastic  property,  scatters  its  seeds 
to  a  great  distance. 

Animals  also  perform  their  part  in  the  diffusion  of  seeds. 
Squirrels  and  oth^r  animals  carry  seeds  and  nuts  into  holes  in 
the  earth.  The  Indians  believed  that  the  squirrels  planted  all 
the  timber  of  the  country ;  there  is  no  doubt  but  that  they  do 
much  towards  diffusing  different  kinds  of  nuts  and  seeds ;  as 
chesnut,  oak,  walnut,  &c.  Animals  contribute  to  the  distribu- 
tion of  seeds  by  conveying  them  in  their  wool,  fur,  or  feathers. . 
Although  distance,  chains  of  mountains,  rivers,  and  even 
seas,  do  not  present  obstacles  sufficient  to  prevent  the  disper- 
sion of  vegetables,  climate  fixes  an  eternal  barrier  which  plants 
cannot  pass.  It  is  not  unlikely  that  in  future  times  the  great- 
er part  of  vegetable  tribes  which  grow  between  the  same  par- 
allels of  latitude,  may  be  common  to  all  countries  of  that  zone  ; 
this  may  be  the  result  of  the  industry  of  man,  aided  by  the  ef- 
ficient means  which  nature  takes  to  promote  the  same  object 
in  the  dissemination  of  seeds  ;  but  no  human  power  can  ever 

Dispersion  of  seeds,  how  effected  ?— Seeds  with  egrets,  and  wings— Seeds 
carried  by  water— Elasticity— Agency  of  animals — Effect  of  climate  upon  the 
dispersion  of  seeds. 


GERMINATION  OF  THE  SEED.  133 

cause  to  grow  within  the  polar  circles,  the  vegetables  of  the 
tropics,  or  those  of  the  poles  at  the  equator.  Nurture  is  here 
stronger  than  man.  That  something  may  be  done  by  art  to 
promote  the  growth  of  the  tropical  plants  in  our  climate  is  true, 
but  how  different  are  the  same  plants  with  us,  from  what  they 
are  in  their  own  genial  climate  ;  we  toil  and  watch  for  years 
to  nurture  an  orange  or  lemon  tree,  which  after  all  is  stinted 
in  its  growth,  while  in  its  own  native  home  it  would  have  grown 
spontaneously  in  luxuriant  beauty. 

The  diffusion  of  seeds  completes  the  circle  of  vegetation,  and 
closes  the  scene  of  vegetable  life.  The  shrubs  and  trees  have 
lost  their  foliage — the  withered  herbs  decompose,  and  restore 
to  the  earth  the  elements  which  they  have  drawn  from  its 
bosom.  The  earth,  stripped  of  its  beauty,  seems  sinking  into 
old  age ;  but  although  unseen  by  us,  and  unmarked  the  pro- 
cesses of  nature  by  too  many  among  men,  innumerable  germs 
have  been  formed,  which  wait  but  the  favorable  warmth  to  dec- 
orate with  new  brilliancy  this  terrestrial  scene. 

So  fruitful  is  nature,  that  a  surface  a  thousand  times  more  ex- 
tended  than  that  of  our  globe,  would  not  be  sufficient  for  the  ve- 
getables which  the  seeds  of  one  single  year  would  produce,  if  all 
should  be  developed  ;  but  the  destruction  of  seeds  is  very  great, 
great  quantities  being  eaten  by  man  and  beast,  and  left  to  per- 
ish in  unfavourable  situations.  Those  which  are  preserved,  con- 
stitute but  a  small  proportion  of  the  whole ;  they  are  either  car- 
ried into  the  clefts  of  rocks,  or  buried  beneath  the  ruins  of  ve- 
getables ;  protected  from  the  cold,  they  remain  inactive  during 
the  winter  season,  and  germinate  as  soon  as  the  early  warmth 
of  spring  is  felt.  Then  the  botanist  who  considers  with  a  curi- 
ous eye,  the  vegetable  species  with  which  the  earth  begins  to 
be  clothed,  seeing  successively  all  the  types  or  representations 
of  past  generations  of  plants,  admires  the  power  of  the  Author 
of  nature,  and  the  immutability  of  His  laws. 


LECTURE  XVI. 

Physiological  Views. 

WE  have  now  considered  the  various  organs  of  plants,  we 
have  traced  them  through  their  successive  stages  of  develope- 
ment,  from  the  root  to  the  bud,  leaf,  and  flower,  and  from  the 
flower  to  the  fruit  and  seed.  We  haye  seen,  in  imagination, 

Circle  of  vegetation  completed— concluding  remarks— Coir  .ucement  of 
Lecture  XVI. 

12 


134  PHYSIOLOGICAL  VIEWS. 

the  vegetable  world,  fading  under  a  change  of  temperature,  the 
44  sear  and  yellow  leaf,"  a  prey  to  the  autumnal  blasts,  and  even 
the  fruits  themselves,  exhibiting  a  mass  of  decayed  matter ;  were 
this  appearance  of  decay  and  death,  now  presented  to  us  for 
the  first  time,  how  gloomy  would  be  the  prospect.  How  little 
should  we  expect  the  return  of  life,  and  beauty,  and  fragrance. 
No  power  short  of  Omnipotence,  can  effect  tjiis  miracle !  But 
we  are  now  so  accustomed  to  these  changes,  that,  "  seeing,  we 
perceive  not;"  we  think  not  of  the  mighty  Being,  who  produ- 
ces them ;  we  call  them  the  operations  of  nature ;  and 
what  is  nature,  or  what  are  the  laws  of  nature,  but  manifesta- 
tions of  Almighty  power? 

The  word  nature,  in  its  original  sense,  signifies  born  or  pro- 
duced ;  let  us  then  look  on  nature  as  a  created  thing,  and  be- 
ware of  yielding  that  homage  to  the  creature  which  is  due  to 
the  Creator.  The  sceptic,  with  seeming  rapture,  may  talk  of 
the  beauties  of  nature,  but  cold  and  insensible  must  be  thcit 
heart,  which  from  the  contemplation  of  the  earth  around,  and 
the  heavens  above,  soars  not  to  Him, 

"  The  mighty  Power  from  whom  these  wonders  are." 

How  beautifully  is  the  reanimation  of  the  vegetable  world, 
brought  by  St.  Paul,  as  an  illustration  of  our  resurrection  from 
the  dead!  The  same  power,  which  from  a  small,  dry,  and  ap- 
parently dead  seed,  can  bring  forth  a  fresh  and  beautiful  plant, 
can  also,  from  the  ruins  of  our  mortal  bodies,  produce  a  new 
and  glorious  body,  and  unite  it  to  the  immortal  spirit  by  ties 
never  to  be  separated. 

Germination.  The  process  of  the  shooting  forth  of  the  seed 
is  termed  germination.  The  principle  of  life  contained  in  the 
seed  does  not  usually  become  active,  until  the  seed  is  placed  in 
circumstances  favourable  to  vegetation.  When  a  seed  is  com- 
mitted to  the  bosom  of  the  earth,  its  various  parts  soon  begin 
to  dilate  by  absorbing  moisture.  A  chemical  action  then  com- 
mences ;  oxygen  from  the  air  unites  to  the  carbon  of  the  seed 
and  carries  it  off  in  the  form  of  carbonic  acid  gas.  As  the  car- 
bon of  the  cotyledons  by  the  process  continues  to  diminish,  and 
oxygen  is  produced  in  excess,  a  sweet,  sugar-like  substance  is 
formed ;  this  is  conveyed  to  the  embryo,  which  by  its  new 
nourishment  is  kindled  into  active  life  ;  from  this  period  we  may 
date  the  existence  of  the  young  plant. 

Cause  of  our  forgetfulnees  of  God  when  beholding  his  operations — Meaning 
of  the  word  nature— Feelings  which  should  be  excited  by  created  object* — St. 
Paul's  illustration  of  the  resurrection— Describe  the  process  of  germination. 


GERMINATION  OF  THE  SEED. 


135 


Fig.  88. 

Bursting  through  the 
coats  which  surrounded  it, 
and  which  are  already 
enfeebled  by  their  loss  of 
carbon,  the  embryo  emer- 
iges  from  its  prison,  the 
\radicle  shoots  downward, 
and  the  plume  rises  up- 
wards. We  say  then  that 
the  seed  has  come  up  or 
sprouted.  Fig.  88  repre- 
sents a  young  dicotyle- 
donous plant,  with  its  ra- 
dicle, a,  developed ;  its 
plume,  &,  is  yet  scarcely 
perceptible  ;  its  cotyle- 
dons, c,  appear  in  the 
form  of  large,  succulent 
seed-leaves.  The  radi- 
cle, or  descending  root, 
is  usually  the  first  to  break 
through  the  coats  of  the  seeds;  it  commences  its  journey 
downwards,  to  seek  in  the  earth  nourishment  for  the  future 
plant,  and  to  fix  it  firmly  in  the  earth.  This  constitutes  the 
root,  and  always  takes  a  downward  course,  in  whatever  situa- 
tion the  seed  may  have  been  placed  in  the  ground. 

A  botanist  once  planted  in  a  pot,  six  acorns,  with  the  points 
of  their  embryos  upwards.  At  the  end  of  two  months,  upon 
removing  the  earth,  he  found  that  all  the  radicles  had  made  an 
angle  in  order  to  reach  downwards.  It  is  supposed  that  if  the 
root  met  with  no  obstruction  in  going  downwards,  it  would  al- 
ways be  perfectly  straight. 

Fig.  89  is  the  representation  of 
a  germinating  seed  of  the  mirabalis 
(four  o'clock) ;  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  radicle,  a,  has  made  nearly  a 
right  angle  in  turning  downwards ; 
the  plume  is  not  developed. 

If  you  put  cotton  into  a  tumbler  of 
water,  and  place  upon  it  some  seeds 
of  rye  or  wheat,  which  soon  vege- 
tate, you  will  see  all  the  fibres  shooting  from  the  seeds,  in  a 
perpendicular  direction,  downwards.  It  is  a  very  simple  and 

Experiment  with  acorns— Explanation  of  Fig.  89— Seeds  placed  on  cotton 
in  a  tumbler. 


136  PHYSIOLOGICAL  VIEWS. 

interesting  experiment.  Some  ascribe  this  phenomenon  to  the 
laws  of  gravitation,  by  which  the  root  is  attracted  towards  the 
centre  of  the  earth ;  others  say  that  the  radicle,  stimulated  by 
moisture,  extends  itself  in  the  natural  direction  from  which  the 
moisture  proceeds ;  and  some  imagine  that  the  plant  is  endow- 
ed  with  a  kind  of  instinct,  similar  to  that  which  often  appears 
in  animals  from  their  first  moments  of  existence,  leading  the 
little  duck  to  seek  the  water  and  birds  to  attempt  to  fly ;  but 
let  us  call  this  power  by  what  name  we  will,  or  refer  it  to 
whatever  secondary  laws,  we  must  after  all  attribute  it  to  the 
will  and  design  of  Him,  who  gave  the  plant  a  principle  of  vi- 
tality. 

After  the  young  root  has  made  some  progress,  the  cotyle- 
dons swell,  and  rising  out  of  the  ground  form  two  green  leaves, 
called  seed  leaves.  You  have  no  doubt  noticed  their  appear- 
ance in  the  garden  bean,  when  it  first  appears  above  the  ground. 
When  the  plume  developes  leaves,  these  seed  leaves,  being  no 
longer  needed,  they 'wither  and  decay. 

You  will  recollect  that  the  embryo  or  germ  is  composed  of 
two  parts,  the  radicle  and  the  plume.  The  radicle,  we  have 
just  seen,  extends  itself  downwards.  Soon  after  this  part  of 
the  germ  has  begun  its  downward  course,  the  plume,  (so  called 
from  its  resembling  a  little  feather,)  rises  upwards,  and  soon 
becomes  a  tuft  of  young  leaves,  with  which  the  stem,  if  there 
is  one,  ascends. 

"  Some  rye,"  says  a  botanist,  "  was  planted  in  a  good  soil, 
and  at  the  end  of  the  second  day  its  radicle  was  discernible. 
At  the  end  of  twenty-four  hours  the  embryo  had  escaped  from 
its  integument.  On  the  second  day  the  fibres  of  the  root  had 
augmented,  but  the  leaves  had  not  appeared.  On  the  fourth 
day  the  first  leaf  began  to4  appear  above  the  ground,  at  which 
time  the  colour  was  red.  On  the  fifth  day,  it  had  grown  to  the 
length  of  an  inch,  and  its  colour  was  now  green,  and  on  the 
sixth  day  the  second  leaf  had  appeared." 

Rye,  however,  belongs  to  that  class  of  plants  whose  seeds 
have  but  one  cotyledon ;  this  never  rises  above  the  ground  to 
form  a  seed  leaf.  Seeds  with  but  one  cotyledon  are  chiefly 
composed  of  albumen,  which  performs  the  same  office  of  nour- 
ishing the  embryo  during  its  germination,  as  do  the  cotyledons 
of  dicotyledonous  plants.  In  some  monocotyledons  is  perceived 
under  the  albumen  or  white,  a  part  called  Vitellus,  or  the  yolk  ; 
this,  like  the  albumen,  is  entirely  converted  into  nourishment 
for  the  young  plant ;  it  may  be  seen  in  the  seeds  of  grasses, 
and  is  conspicuous  in  the  Indian  corn. 

Causes  assigned  for  the  downward  course  of  the  radicle—  Seed  leaves — 
I  lume—  Experiment  with  rye- — Seeds  with  one  cotyledon — Vitellus. 


GERMINATION  OF  THE  SEED. 


137 


Fig.  90 


Fig.  90  represents  a  young  mono- 
cotyledonous  plant ;  at  a  is  the  cotyle- 
don ;  at  b  is  the  second  leaf,  which,  in 
the  example  just  given  of  the  rye,  ap- 
peared on  the  sixth  day ;  at  c  is  the 
primordial  leaf,  which  at  first  envelopes 
and  conceals  the  other  leaves  ;*  at  d 
are  the  several  branches  of  the  root, 
bearing  their  radicles,  and  at  their 
base  enveloped  by  a  peculiar  covering 
through  which  the  extremities  have 
forced  their  way.f  It  has  been  ob- 
served, that  moisture  is  essential  to  the 
germination  of  the  seed.  Earth, 
though  not  absolutely  essential,  is  use- 
ful, as  affording  to  the  vegetable  egg 
a  favourable  situation,  where  it  may 
receive  the  influence  of  the  various 
agents,  which  are  to  perform  their  offi- 
ces in  the  developement  of  its  parts. 
,It  seems,  too,  not  improbable  that  some 
of  the  constituent  elements  of  earth 
may  be  absorbed  by  the  germinating 
plant,  and  converted  into  nourishment. 
It  is  however  sufficiently  apparent  that 
plants  may  vegetate  without  earth. 
The  parasite  grows  upon  the  bark  of 
other  plants ;  many  seeds  vegetate  in 
water,  and  some,  if  moistened  and 
placed  on  cotton,  or  other  supporting 
substance. 

Air  is  essential  to  vegetation ;  un- 
der an  exhausted  receiver  a  seed  will 
not  germinate,  although  possessing 
every  other  requisite.  Seeds  that  be- 
come imbedded  deeply  in  the  ground, 
do  not  vegetate,  unless  accidentally 
ploughed  up,  or  exposed  to  the  contact 
of  the  atmosphere.  Acorns  which  are 
supposed  to  have  lain  for  centuries, 
have  germinated  as  soon  as  they  were 
raised  sufficiently  near  the  surface  to 
receive  the  influence  of  air. 


*  This,  the  French  botanists  call  the  pileole. 
t  This  covering,  Mirbel  terras  the  coleorhize. 


Explanation  of  Fig.  SO — Earth  useful  to  vegetation — Air  essential  to  vegetation. 

12* 


138  PHYSIOLOGICAL  VIEWS, 

You  will  recollect  that  in  the  process  of  germination,  oxygen 
gas  unites  with  the  carbon  of  the  seed,  and  carries  it  off  in  the 
form  of  carbonic  acid.  Air  furnishes  that  important  agent, 
oxygen,  which  is  the  first  moving  principle  of  vitality. 

Carbon  constitutes  the  greater  part  of  the  substance  of  seeds; 
and  this  principle,  being  in  its  nature  opposed  to  putrefaction, 
prevents  seeds  from  rotting,  previous  to  their  being  sown. 
Some  seeds  having  an  abundance  of  carbon,  are  capable  of  be- 
in^  preserved  forages;  while  others,  in  which  this  element 
exists  but  in  a  small  proportion,  require  to  be  sown  almost  as 
soon  as  ripe ;  and  such  as  are  still  more  deficient  in  carbon, 
lose  their  vital  principle,  before  separating  from  the  pericarp. 

You  can  now  understand  that  oxygen  is  important  to  ger- 
mination,  on  account  of  its  agency  in  removing  the  carbon 
which  held  the  living  principle  of  the  seed  in  bondage. 

The  absence  of  light  is  favourable  to  the  germination  of  seeds; 
for  light  acts  upon  plants  in  such  a  manner  as  to  take  away 
oxygen  by  the  decomposition  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  to  de- 
posite  carbon  ;  now  this  is  just  the  reverse  of  the  process  re- 
quired in  germination,  where  the  carbon  must  be  evolved  and 
the  oxygen  in  excess. 

A  certain  degree  of  heat  is  necessary  to  germination.  Seeds 
planted  in  winter,  will  remain  in  a  torpid  state ;  but  as  soon  as 
the  warmth  of  spring  is  felt,  the  embryo  emerges  into  life.  By 
increasing  IK  at,  seeds  may  be  hastened  in  their  vegetating  pro- 
cess ; '  thus  the  same  seed,  which  with  a  moderate  degree  of 
heat  would  germinate  in  nine  hours,  may  be  1>  •  this 

state  in  six  hours,  by  an  increase  of  temperature.  Too  great 
heat  destroys  the  vital  principle  ;  thus  corn  which  has  been 
roasted  could  never  be  made  to  vegetate.  The  process  of  malt- 
ing consists  in  submitting  grain  of  a  certain  kind,  (that  of  bar- 
ley is  most  commonly  used,)  to  a  process  which  causes  an  in- 
cipient stage  of  germination ;  this  is  done  by  moistening  the 
grain  and  exposing  it  to  a  suitable  degree  of  warmth  ;  as  soon 
as  germination  commences,  the  process  is  stopped  by  increas- 
ing the  heat.  The  taste  of  the  grain  is  then  found  to  have  be- 
come sweetish.  The  term  nialt  is  given  to  grain  which  has 
been  submitted  to  this  process.  When  mixed  with  Welter  it 
forms  a  sweet  liquor;  and  the  fermentation  of  this  liquor  pro- 
duces beer. 

There  is  a  great  difference  in  plants  as  to  their  time  of  ger- 
minating ;  some  seeds  begin  to  vegetate  before  they  are  sepa- 
rated from  the  pericarp.* 

*  In  the  month  of  January,  on  observing  the  seeds  of  a  very  juicy  apple, 

Oxygen  an  important  agent— Carbon — The  absence  of  light  favourable  to  the 
germination  of  plants — Heat — Effects  of  top  great  heat  exemplified  in  the  pro- 
cess of  malting — Malt — Season  of  germinating. 


SOLIDS  AND  FLUIDS  OF  VEGETABLES. 

In  the  greater  number  of  vegetables,  however,  there  is  no- 
germination  until  after  the  opening  of  the  pericarp  and  the  fall 
of  the  seed.  The  time  at  which  different  species  of  seeds,  af- 
ter being  committed  to  the  earth,  begin  to  vegetate,  varies 
from  one  day,  to  some  years.  The  seeds  of  grasses,  and  the 
grain  like  plants,  as  rye,  wheat,  corn,  &c.  germinate  within  two 
days.  The  cruciform  plants,  such  as  radish,  and  mustard,  the 
leguminous,  as  the  pea  and  bean,  require  a  little  more  time. 
The  peach,  walnut,  and  peony,  remain  in  the  earth  a  year  be- 
fore they  vegetate. 

All  kinds  of  plants  germinate  sooner  if  they  are  sown  imme- 
diately after  being  separated  from  their  pericarps. 

Most  vegetables  preserve  their  vital  principle  for  years  : 
some  lose  it  as  soon  as  they  are  detached  from  their  pericarps. 
This  is  said  to  be  the  case  in  the  coffee  and  tea.  The  seeds  of 
some  of  the  grasses,  as  wheat,  &c.  are  said  to  retain  their  vital 
principle  even  for  centuries.  It  is  asserted  that  mosses,  kept 
for  near  two  hundred  years  in  the  herbariums  of  botanists,  have 
revived  by  being  soaked  in  water.  An  American  writer*  says, 
that  «  seeds,  if  imbedded  in  stone  or  dry  earth,  and  removed 
from  the  influence  of  air  or  moisture,  might  be  made  to  retain 
their  vegetative  quality  or  principle  of  life  for  a  thousand  years." 
But  he  very  rationally  adds,  "  life  is  a  property  which  we  do 
not  understand ;  yet  life,  however  feeble  and  obscure,  is  always 
life,  and  between  it  and  death  there  is  a  distance  as  great  as 
existence  and  nonexistence." 

The  subjects  upon  which,  in  this  lecture,  we  have  been  en- 
gaged, properly  come  under  the  head  of  vegetable  physiology, 
a  department  of  botany  highly  interesting,  but  too  complicated 
in  its  nature  to  be,  except  in  a  very  limited  degree,  presented 
to  the  mind  of  the  youthful  investigator.  The  physician  finds 
in  the  vegetable  organization  striking  analogies  to  the  internal 
structure  of  the  animal  frame ;  to  him  the  language  of  physio- 
logical botany  is  familiar,  because  it  is  borrowed  from  his  own 
science.  On  the  other  hand,  the  botanical  student,  in  learning 
the  names  and  offices  of  the  various  internal  organs  of  plants^ 
is  making  no  inconsiderable  improvement  in  the  knowledge  of 
the  animal  economy,  and  will  feel  his  curiosity  excited  to  search 
into  the  mysterious  organization  of  his  own  material  frame. 

which  had  been  kept  in  a  warm  cellar,  I  saW  that  they  were  swollen,  and  that 
the  out  ward  coat  had  burst;  examining  one  seed,  by  removing  the  tegument  and 
separating  the  cotyledons,  I  saw  by  the  help  of  a  microscope  the  embryo,  as  if 
in  a  germinating  state :  the  radicle  was  like  a  little  beak  ;  in  the  upper  part  or 
plume  was  plainly  to  be  seen  the  tuft  of  leaves  and  the  stem. 
*  B.  Barton.  ' 

Time  of  germinating  varies — Vital  principle  of  fruits — Vegetable  Physiology 
— Its  language  borrowed  from  animal  physiology . 


LECTURE  XVII. 

Physiological  Views. 

HAVING  considered  the  organs  of  the  plant,  from  the  root  to 
the  seed,  it  might  seem  as  if  our  inquiries  into  the  vegetable 
substance  were  terminated  ;  but  we  have  yet  to  investigate 
more  minutely  the  internal  texture  of  these  various  organs. 
Before  commencing  the  study  of  botany,  when  you  looked  at 
the  trunk  of  a  tree,  a  little  herb,  or  a  leaf,  you  perhaps  con- 
sidered it  as  very  simple  in  its  structure  ;  you  saw  it  only  as 
one  mass :  but  you  now  perceive  that  plants,  like  animals,  are 
collections  of  fibres ;  that  they  have  parts  which  are  analogous 
to  our  skin,  bones,  flesh,  and  blood  ;  that  they  are  living,  or- 
ganized  beings,  composed  of  solid  and  fluid  parts ;  and  are,  like 
animals,  the  subjects  of  life  and  death. 

Plants  differ  from  animals  in  not  possessing  any  of  the  or- 
gans  of  sense.  They  can  neither  see,  hear,  taste,  smell,  nor 
touch.  Some  vegetables,  however,  seem  to  have  a  kind  of 
sensibility  like  that  derived  from  the  organs  of  touch  ;  they 
tremble  and  shrink  back  upon  coming  in  contact  with  other 
substances  ;  some  turn  themselves  round  to  the  sun,  as  if  en- 
joying  its  rays.  There  is  a  mystery  in  these  circumstances 
which  we  cannot  penetrate,  and  it  is  not  yet  fully  known  at 
what  point  in  the  scale  of  existence  animal  life  ends,  and  vege- 
table life  commences.  Some  animals,  like  the  sponge  and 
corals,  seem  almost  destitute  of  any  kind  of  sensation,  and  yet 
they  are  ranked  in  the  animal  kingdom.  On  the  subject  of  the 
distinctions  and  analogies  between  plants  and  animals,  we  shall 
dwell  more  fully  hereafter. 

Solid  parts  of  Vegetables. 

At  present  we  have  to  consider  the  solid  parts  of  the  vegeta- 
ble system ;  these  are  all  composed  of  a  membranous  substance, 
which  exists  in  every  part  of  the  plant,  forming  by  various  mo- 
difications, the  different  textures  which  the  vegetable  system 
exhibits.  This  membranous  substance  appears  chiefly  under 
two  elementary  forms  :  viz.  1st,  that  of  tellular  texture  ;  2d, 
vascular  texture. 


Object  of  the  17th  lecture— Plants  analogous  to  animals— Difficult  to  deter- 
mine where  vegetable  life  commences— Solid  parts  of  plants— Membranous 
substance  under  two  forms. 


VASCULAR  TEXTURE. 

Fig.  91. 


141 


1st.  Cellular  tex- 
ture, (Fig.  91,  a,) 
according  to  the  opin- 
ion of  Mirbel,  is  com- 
posed of  a  mass  of 
little  hexagonal  cells, 
resembling  honey 
comb.  Another 
French  botanist* 
compares  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  cel- 
lular texture  to  the 
froth  of  fermenting  liquor  ;  he  considers  that  each  cell  is  dis- 
connected with  the  others  ;  while  Mirbel  believes  that  the 
divisions  of  the  membrane  which  forms  these  cells,  are  common 
to  contiguous  cells.  The  cellular  system  in  animals  contains 
the  fat ;  in  vegetables  it  is  generally  filled  with  resinous,  oily, 
or  saccharine  juices.  In  some  cases  the  cells  contain  air  only. 
They  are  usually  marked  by  small  dots  (See  'the  dots  at  a, 
Fig.  91) ;  these  are  supposed  to  be  apertures,  through  which 
fluids  are  transmitted  from  one  cell  to  another. 

The  cellular  texture  composes  most  of  the  pith,  parenchyma 
and  cotyledons  of  almost  all  vegetables.  It  is  abundant  in  tu- 
berous roots,  pulpy  and  fleshy  fruits,  and  the  stems  of  grasses, 
and  constitutes  the  principal  parts  of  mushrooms  and  other 
cryptogamous  plants.  In  the  bark  of  plants,  the  cellular  tex- 
ture is  situated  under  the  cuticle ;  it  is  filled  with  a  juice  which 
varies  in  colour  in  different  species  of  plants,  but  is  most  com- 
monly green  ;  it  gives  its  colour  to  the  bark,  as  the  same  tex- 
ture under  the  human  cutiele  gives  colour  to  the  skin.  The 
green  colour  of  leaves  is  caused  by  the  cellular  texture,  which 
is  inclosed  on  both  sides  by  the  cuticle.  In  the  pith  of  young 
plants,  the  cells  are  filled  with  watery  fluids,  but  in  older 
plants  they  are  empty  or  only  filled  by  air. 

The  petals  of  flowers  owe  their  beautiful  hues  to  the  pres. 
ence  of  cellular  texture,  filled  with  juices,  which  refract  and 
reflect  the  rays  of  light,  in  a  peculiar  manner. 

Vascular^  texture,  consists  of  tubes  which  like  the  vessels  of 
the  animal  frame  are  capable  of  transmitting  fluids.  These 
tubes  are  open  at  both  ends,  and  are  protected  by  a  thick  coat- 
ing of  cellular  integument ;  their  sides  are  thick  and  little  trans- 

*  Dutrochet. 

tThe  term  vascular  is  derived  from  the  Latin  word  vasculum,  a  little  vessel. 


Cellular  texture — how  situated — Cause  of  the  green  colour  of  plants — Beau- 
tiful  hues  of  petals — Vascular  texture. 


142 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  VIEWS 


parent.  *  These  vessels  extend  throughout  the  whole  plant, 
distributing  air  and  other  fluids  necessary  to  vegetation.  The 
vascular  system  of  plants  presents  a  variety  as  to  form  and 
with  respect  to  the  functions  which  the  different  vessels 
perform. 

Some  are  entire  vessels,  or  without  any  perforation  (Fig. 
91,  c) ;  these  convey  the  proper  juices  of  the  plant,  mid  are 
generally  found  containing  oils  and  resinous  juices. 

Porous  vessels  have  their  sides  pierced  with  many  perfora- 
tions (Fig.  91,  b) ;  they  often  separate  and  again  unite,  chan- 
ging at  length  into  cellular  integument. 

Fi-  92-  .    Spiral  vessels  are 

so  called  from  their 
form,  resembling 
that  of  a  screw  (Fig. 
92,  a)  ;  they  are 
sometimes  termed 
trachea,  from  a  sup- 
posed analogy  to  the 
trachea,  or  the  or- 
gans of  insects  for 
breathing.  These 
vessels  are  formed 
of  a  thread-like  fibre 
turned  spirally  from 
right  to  left. 

Annular  vessels  (so  called  from  annulus,  a  ring,)  have  per- 
forations which  make  the  tube  appear  as  if  composed  of  rings 
(Kg.  92,  b). 

Moniliform  vessels  (from  monile,  beads,)  resemble,  in  exter- 
nal appearance,  a  string  of  beads  (Fig.  92,  c) ;  these  serve  to 
connect  large  vessels,  and  to  convey  sap  from  one  set  to 
another. 

Mosses,  fungi,  and  lichens  have  no  vascular  system  ;  but 
their  vessels  are  all  of  the  cellular  kind.  The  fibres  of  plants 
are  all  composed  of  some  varieties  of  the  two  kinds  of  vessels 
we  have  now  described.  Roots  and  stems  are  composed  of 
fibres ;  these  may  easily  be  split  longitudinally,  as  the  vessels 
in  this  case  are  only  separated,  and  the  cellular  texture  easily 
yields  ;  but  in  cutting  the  roots  and  stems  horizontally,  greater 
resistance  is  to  be  overcome,  since  the  tubes  are  to  be  divided 
or  cut  across. 

Vegetables,  like  animals,  have  a  system  of  glands,  or  internal 
vessels,  which  are  by  the  Author  of  nature,  made  subservient 

Entire  vessels,— Porous  vessels — Spiral  vessels — Annular — Moniliform — All 
the  fibres  of  plants  composed  of  some  of  these  vessels — Glands  of  vegetables. 


FLUID  PARTS  OF  VEGETABLES.  143 

to  the  purpose  of  producing  changes  in  the  fluids  of  the  plants  ; 
thus  the  sap  is  converted  into  the  proper  juices,  and  from  the 
same  soil  and  nourishment  appear  plants  of  very  different  pro- 
perties. 

Mirbel,  by  the  aid  of  the  microscope,  succeeded  in  discovering 
a  system  of  glands,  in  the  pores  of  cells,  and  on  the  borders  of 
the  spiral  vessels.  There  are  external  glands  which  appear 
manifest  to  the  naked  eye ;  as  the  nectaries  of  flowers,  which 
secrete  or  manufacture  honey  ;  and  the  stings  of  plants,  which 
secrete  an  acrid  substance,  that  by  penetrating  the  skin  causes 
a  painful  sensation. 

Fluid  parts  of  Vegetables. 

The  different  fluids  which  are  exhibited  in  the  vegetable 
body  may  be  considered  under  three  general  divisions  :  1st,  the 
sap,  or  ascending  fluid  ;  2d,  the  cambium,  or  descending  fluid ; 
3d,  the  proper  juices. 

The  sap  is  a  limpid,  inodorous  liquid,  the  elements  of  which 
are  imbibed  from  the  earth  by  pores  in  the  radicles  of  the  root. 
You  know  that  if  the  earth  around  the  roots  of  plants  is  depriv. 
ed  of  moisture,  they  soon  die.  Moisture  furnishes  to  the  radi- 
cles, water  holding  in  solution  various  substances ;  such  as 
earths,  salts,  animal  and  vegetable  matter.  The  radicles,  by 
some  unknown  process,  convert  this  fluid  matter  into  sap,  and 
then,  by  means  of  vessels  which  form  what  is  called  the  sap- 
wood  or  alburnum,  this  sap  ascends  through  the  stems  to  the 
branches ;  passing  through  the  woody  part  of  the  petioles,  and 
those  minute  branches  of  the  petiole  which  form  the  ribs  and 
veins  of  the  leaf,  it  enters  into  the  vessels  and  cells  which  ex- 
tend throughout  its  substance. 

The  ascending  sap  is  always  in  circulation,  but  its  energy 
varies  with  the  season  and  the  age  of  the  plant.  Heat  has  an 
important  influence  upon  the  ascent  of  the  sap;  yet  during  a 
dry  and  hot  season  it  often  appears  to  ascend  but  slowly.  This 
is  because  the  absorption  of  fluids  from  the  earth  is  checked  by 
the  dryness  of  the  soil.  The  plant,  by  a  little  stretch  of  the 
imagination,  may  be  considered  as  thirsty,  and  thus  man  may 
seem  not  only  provident,  but  humane,  in  administering  to  its 
roots  refreshing  draughts  of  water.  Even  the  leaves,  at  such  a 
period,  seem  to  be  too  impatient  to  wait  for  supplies  by  means  of 
the  connecting  sap  vessels ;  but  if  water  is  sprinkled  upon 
them,  they  fail  not  to  use  their  own  power  of  absorption,  and 
may,  upon  such  an  application,  be  seen  to  revive  almost  in- 
stantaneously. 

Their  use — Mirbel's  discoveries — External  glands— '1  hree  divisions  of  fluids 
— Sap— Sap-wood — Ascent  of  the  sap. 


144  PHYSIOLOGICAL  VIEWS. 

When  the  moisture  of  the  earth  coincides  with  elevation  of 
temperature,  the  sap  ascends  with  the  greatest  rapidity ;  this 
is  the  case  in  spring.  It  is  at  this  period,  as  you  no  doubt  are 
aware,  that  incisions  are  made  into  the  wood  of  maple  trees,  in 
order  to  procure  sap  for  the  manufacture  of  sugar.  The  sap 
may  at  this  time,  be  seen  flowing  almost  in  a  stream.  It  has 
been  thought,  that  the  circulation  of  sap  was  wholly  suspended 
during  winter;  this,  however,  seems  not  to  be  the  case;  for  we 
may  observe  during  this  season,  a  gradual  developement  of  some 
parts  of  the  plant ;  we  see  many  plants  preserving  the  freshness 
and  verdure  of  their  foliage ;  and  mosses  putting  forth  their 
flowers.  We  must  then  believe  that  the  sap  is  in  perpetual  mo- 
tion, susceptible  of  being  accelerated  or  retarded  by  changes  of 
temperature,  and  humidity  or  dryness  of  the  earth.  The  devel- 
opement of  buds,  must  be  attributed  to  the  ascension,  and  re- 
dundancy of  the  sap,  which  dilates  and  nourishes  their  parts. 
In  spring,  when  the  ascent  of  the  sap  is  accelerated,  the  buds 
enlarge  rapidly,  and  their  complete  developement  is  soon  per- 
fected. 

The  vascular  texture  appears  by  its  tubes  and  channels  to 
afford  great  facilities  for  the  ascension  of  the  sap.  In  imperfect 
plants,  such  as  mushrooms  and  lichens,  which  are  wholly  com- 
posed of  cellular  texture,  it  is  not  known  that  there  is  any  as- 
cent of  sap,  but  they  seem  to  be  nourished  by  fluids  absorbed  from 
the  air. 

The  question  naturally  arises,  by  what  force  is  the  sap  made 
to  ascend,  contrary  to  the  laws  of  gravitation?  Some  have  as- 
serted that  this  phenomenon  was  owing  to  the  contraction  and 
dictation  of  the  air,  and  of  the  juices  of  the  plant ;  others  have 
referred  it  to  the  action  oi'heat;  these  two  propositions,  howev. 
er,  amount  to  the  same  tiling,  since  heat  is  the  cause  of  the  con- 
traction and  dilatation  referred  to.  Some  ascribe  the  ascent  of 
the  sap,  to  the  irritability  of  the  vessels,  and  the  energy  of  vital 
power. 

This  is  but  a  vague  and  unsatisfactory  explanation,  since  we 
know  neither  the  cause  of  this  irritability,  nor  in  what  this  vital 
|K)wer  consists.  There  is  no  doubt  but  the  ascent  of  the  sap, 
is,  in  a  degree,  owing  to  capillary*  attraction,  assisted  by  heat. 
You  will  recollect  that  the  vessels  containing  this  fluid,  were 
described  as  very  small  tubes,  no  larger  than  a  hair,  and,  in  most 

*  The  terra  capillary,  is  taken  from  the  Latin,  capittus,  a  hair. 

What  two  circumstances  cause  the  rapid  ascent  of  the  sap? — Why  am  in- 
cisions made  in  maple  trees  in  the  spring,  rather  than  ar.y  other  period  ? — Per- 
petual  motion  of  sap— Cause  of  developement  of  buds — Vascular  texture  unlike 
the  cellular  in  affording  facilities  for  the  ascension  of  sap — Explanations  of  the 
causes  of  the  ascent  of  sap. 


FLUID  PARTS  OF  VEGETABLES.  145 

cases,  much  smaller,  since  few  are  visible  to  the  naked  eye. 
You  have,  in  the  study  of  Natural  Philosophy,  learned  that  ca- 
pillary tubes  have  the  property  of  raising  liquids,  against  the 
laws  of  gravitation,  and  with  a  force  proportional  to  their  small- 
ness  of  diameter :  this  law  seems  to  explain,  in  some  degree, 
the  phenomenon  we  are  considering.  Yet  we  must  realize  that 
our  researches  here,  as  in  every  other  case,  terminate  in  mys- 
teries, impenetrable  by  our  limited  faculties. 

But  it  is  necessary  for  us  now  to  trace  the  progress  of  the 
sap,  after  it  has  ascended  to  the  leaves  and  extremities  of  the 
plant ;  a  considerable  portion  of  it  is,  by  pores  in  the  leaf,  exha- 
led in  the  form  of  almost  pure  water,  while  the  particles  of  va- 
rious kinds,  which  the  sap  held  in  solution,  are  deposited  with- 
in the  substance  of  the  leaf.  This  process  is  sometimes  termed 
the  perspiration  of  plants  ;  it  is  visible  in  some  grass-like  plants, 
particularly  upon  the  leaves  of  Indian  corn ;  if  these  are  examin- 
ed before  sunrise,  the  perspiration  appears  in  the  form  of  a  drop 
at  the  extremity  of  the  leaf;  the  ribs  of  the  leaf  unite  at  this 
point,  and  a  minute  aperture  furnished  for  the  passage  of  the  fluid, 
may  be  discovered. 

The  sap  which  remains  after  the  exhalation  by  means  of  the 
leaves,  is  supposed  to  consist  of  about  one  third  of  that  origin- 
ally absorbed  by  the  root ;  this  remainder  possesses  all  the  nu- 
tritive particles,  which  had  before  been  divided  through  the 
whole  of  the  sap.  At  this  period,  an  important  change  in  its  na- 
ture takes  place,  a  change  which  has  its  analogy  in  the  animal 
economy. 

We  have  compared  the  sap  to  the  blood  of  animals,  but  it  is  in 
reality,  more  like  the  animal  substance,  chyle,  which  is  a  milk- 
like  liquor,  separated  by  digestion  from  the  food  taken  into  the 
stomach.  A  considerable  part  of  this  chyle -is  converted  into 
blood,  which  passing  first  into  the  arteries  and  then  into  the 
veins,  are  by  the  latter,  conveyed  to  the  heart ;  the  heart,  by 
its  contractions  sends  the  blood  to  the  lungs.  At  each  inspira- 
tion of  the  breath,  the  oxygen  from  the  atmospheric  air,  is  ab- 
sorbed by  the  lungs ;  here,  uniting  to  the  carbon  of  the  blood, 
it  forms  carbonic  gas,  which  is  thrown  off  at  every  expiration  of 
the  breath.  Thus  the  carbon,  which,  in  the  animal  system  is 
accumulated,  by  feeding  on  vegetables,  and  which  requires  to 
be  diminished,  is  carried  off;  it  has  been  said  that  a  person  ex- 
hales, inbreathing  twenty. four  hours,  almost  one  pound  of  car- 
bon, or  the  ba£is  of  charcoal ! 

We  will  now  return  to  the  sap  in  the  leaves  of  plants,  and  see 
whether  a  change  takes  place,  analagous  to  that  in  the  animal 

Exhalation  of  sap— Perspiration — Sap  which  remains  after  exhalation  by 
means  of  the  leaves— Sap  compared  to  chyle— Formation  of  carbonic  gas, 

13 


146  PHYSIOLOGICAL  VIEWS. 

system.  We  will  consider  the  sap  as  bearing  a  resemblance 
to  the  animal  chyle,  and  the  leaves  to  the  animal  lungs.  These 
vegetable  lungs  are  furnished  with  pores,  by  which  they,  too,  in- 
hale  gases;  but  here  our  comparison  fails,  since,  instead  of  ox- 
ygen,  the  plant  inhales  carbonic  acid ;  this  it  decomposes ;  and 
converting  to  its  own  use  the  carbon,  which  is  an  important  el- 
ement of  vegetable  compounds,  it  exhales  the  oxygen  necessary 
for  the  support  of  animal  life.  Light,  however,  is  necessary  for 
this  process  of  respiration  in  the  plant ;  deprived  of  this  agent, 
vegetables  absorb  instead  of  giving  off  oxygen. 

The  carbon,  which  is  deposited  in  the  sap,  seems,  in  order 
to  be  fitted  for  the  nourishment  of  the  plant,  to  require  the  far- 
ther agency  of  oxygen,  to  convert  it  into  carbonic  acid  ;  this 
is  done  by  means  of  the  oxygen,  which,  during  the  light,  is  ab- 
sorbed by  the  leaves.  At  the  appearance  of  light,  carbonic 
acid  is  again  decomposed  and  oxygen  evolved.  Besides  the 
oxygen  which  the  plant  separates  from  the  carbonic  acid  in- 
haled by  its  leaves,  it  is  undoubtedly  furnished  with  this  gas  by 
the  decomposition  of  water*  and  other  substances  which  are  ab- 
sorbed by  the  root. 

The  cambium  is  the  sap  elaborated  by  the  chemical  process 
carried  on  in  the  leaves,  and  rendered  fit  for  the  nourishment 
of  the  plant. 

In  tracing  the  descent  of  the  cambium  or  returning  sap,  wo 
shall  not  find  it  passing  through  the  same  vessels  by  which  it 
ascended ;  it  is  chiefly  conveyed  by  a  system  of  vessels  be- 
tween the  liber  or  inner  layer  of  bark,  and  the  alburnum  or 
young  wood ;  here  it  contributes  both  to  the  formation  of  new 
wood  and  new  bark,  and  extending  from  the  extremity  of  the 
roots,  to  the  upper  extremity  of  the  plant,  it  furnishes  materials 
for  the  formation  of  new  buds  and  radicles. 

If  a  ring  is  cut  through  the  bark  of  a  tree,  the  cambium  will 
be  arrested  in  its  course,  and  accumulating  around  the  upper 
edge  of  the  bark,  will  cause  a  ridge  or  an  annular^  protube- 
rance. This  vegetable  blood  being  thus  prevented  from  hav. 
ing  access  to  the  lower  part  of  the  plant,  the  roots  cease  to 
grow,  the  sap  ascends  but  feebly,  and  the  tree  dies  in  two  or 
three  years.  If  the  incision  is  not  made  too  deep,  the  wound 
will  soon  heal  by  the  union  of  the  disconnected  bark,  and  the  " 
circulation  of  the  cambium  proceeds  as  before.  This  experi- 

*  Water  consists  of  oxygen'm  union  with  hydrogen, 
t  From  the  Latin  word  annulus,  a  ring. 

In  what  respect  does  the  comparison  between  the  respiration  of  plants  and 
animals  fail  ? — What  is  needed  in  order  to  fit  the  carbon  for  the  nourishment  of 
the  plant  ?— Cambium,  or  descending  sap — How  conveyed — Importance  of  this 
fluid— What  is  the  effect  of  cutting  a  ring  through  the  bark  of  a  tree  ? 


BARK.  147 

ment  proves  the  importance  of  this  fluid  to  the  existence  of  the 
plant. 

The  Proper  Juices  of  Vegetables.  This  division  compre- 
hends all  the  fluids  furnished  by  the  plant  except  the  sap  and 
cambium  ;  as  oils,  gums,  &c.  These  are  the  product  of  the 
cambium,  as  in  the  animal,  tears  are  secreted  from  blood. 
The  secretions,  carried  on  by  the  vegetable  glands  from  the 
cambium,  are  of  two  kinds;  1st,  such  as  are  destined  to  remain 
in  the  plant,  as  milk,  resins,  gums,  essential  and  fixed  oils ; 
2d,  such  as  are  destined  to  be  conveyed  out  of  the  plant,  as 
useless  or  incongruous ;  these  consist  chiefly  of  vapours  and 
gases  exhaled  from  flowers,  and  are  sometimes  called  excre- 
tions. 


LECTURE   XVIIL 

Bark,  Wood  and  Pith. 

WE  have  exhibited  to  your  view  the  minute  .discoveries  made 
by  the  help  of  the  microscope  in  the  solid  parts  of  vegetable 
substances ;  and  we  have  also  noticed  those  important  fluids, 
the  circulation  of  which  appears  to  constitute  the  life,  and  pro- 
duce the  growth  of  plants.  We  have  now  to  consider  the  solid 
parts  already  described,  as  composing  the  body  of  the  .vegeta- 
ble, and  collected  under  three  forms  of  Bark,  Wood,  and  Pith. 

Bark.  The  bark  consists  of  the  epidermis,  cellular  integu- 
ment and  cortex. 

1st.  Epidermis  is  the  skin  or  membrane  which  extends  over 
the  surface  of  every  vegetable.  It  is  also  called  the  cuticle,  a 
name  which  anatomists  have  given  to  the  external  covering  of 
the  animal  body.  There  is  a  striking  analogy  between  animal 
and  vegetable  cuticle  or  skin.  In  the  animal  it  varies  in  thick- 
ness from  the  delicate  film  which  covers  the  eye,  to  the  hard 
skin  of  the  hand  or  foot,  the  coarser  covering  of  the  ox,  or  the 
hard  shell  of  the  tortoise.  In  the  vegetable  it  is  exquisitely 
delicate,  as  in  the  covering  of  a  rose  leaf,  and  hard  and  coarse 
in  the  rugged  coats  of  the  elm  and  oak.  In  the  birch  you  may 
see  the  cuticle  or  outer  bark  peeling  off  in  circular  pieces. 
This  seems  not  to  be  endowed  with  the  vital  principle,  and  in 
this  respect  it  differs  from  all  other  parts  of  the  plant.  The 
epidermis  or  cuticle  serves  for  protection  from  external  inju- 
ries, and  regulates  the  proportion  of  absorption  and  perspira- 
tion through  its  pores.  It  is  transparent  as  well  as  porous,  so 
as  to  admit  to  the  cellular  integument,  the  free  access  of  light 

Proper  juices  of  vegetables — Secretions  from  the  cambium — Of  what  are  the 
bark,  wood  and  pith  composed  ? — Divisions  of  the  bark — Describe  the  epidermis. 


148  PHYSIOLOGICAL  VIEWS.  ^ 

and  air,  while  it  excludes  every  substance  which  would  be  in. 
jurious. 

It  is  to  the  cuticle  of  wheat,  oats,  rye,  and  some  of  the  grass- 
es, that  we  are  indebted  for  straw  and  imitation  Leghorn  hats. 
In  their  manufacture,  the  straws  are  scraped,  so  that  nothing 
remains  but  the  cuticle.  It  has  been  ascertained  that  the  outer 
bark  of  many  of  the  grasses  contains  silex,  or  flint ;  in  the 
scouring  rush,  (Equisetum,)  the  quantity  of  silex  is  such,  that 
housekeepers  find  it  an  excellent  substitute  for  sand,  in  scour- 
ing wood  or  metals.  A  singular  property  of  the  cuticle  is, 
that  it  does  not  seem  to  be  subject  to  the  same  changes  as  the 
other  parts  of  bodies ;  it  is,  of  all  substances  found  upon  ani- 
mal or  vegetable  matter,  the  least  indestructible.  The  cuticle 
is  sometimes  like  the  skin  of  animals,  clothed  with  wool  or 
down,  and  it  then  becomes  an  important  security  against  the 
effects  of  heat  and  cold.  The  leaf  of  the,  mullein  has  its  cuti- 
cle covered  with  a  kind  of  wool ;  the  pericarp  of  the  peach 
has  a  downy  cuticle. 

2d.  Cellular  Integument,  is  situated  beneath  the  epidermis  or 
outer  skin  of  the  bark ;  it  is  filled  with  a  resinous  substance, 
which  is  usually  green  in  young  plants.  This  cellular  layer 
possesses  glands,  which,  when  submitted  to  the  action  of  light, 
carry  on  the  process  of  decomposing  carbonic  acid  gas,  by  re- 
taining the  carbon  and  evolving  the  oxygen  gas.  The  cellular 
integument  envelopes  branches,  as  well  as  trunks  of  trees,  and 
herbaceous  stems;  it  extends  into  roots,  but  there  it  neither 
remains  its  green  colour  nor  decomposes  carbonic  acid  gas. 
It  is  the  seat  of  colour,  and  in  this  respect  analogous  to  the 
cutis,  or  true  skin  of  animals,  which  is  the  substance  situated 
under  the  cuticle,  and  is  black  in  the  Negro,  red  in  the  In- 
dian, and  pale  in  the  American.  In  the  leaves  of  vegetables, 
the  cellular  integument  occupies  the  spaces  comprised  between 
the  nerves,  and  is  of  a  green  colour ;  in  flowers  and  fruits  it  is 
of  various  colours.  The  cellular  substance  of  some  aquatic 
plants  is  filled  with  air ;  in  the  pine,  sumach,  &c.  it  is  filled 
with  the  proper  juices  of  the  plant.  This  herbaceous  envelope 
of  the  trunks  of  trees,  after  a  time  dries,  appearing  on  the  sur- 
face in  the  form  of  the  cuticle,  and  often  cleaves  off.  It  is  re- 
newed internally  from  the  cambium. 

The  petals  of  flowers  are  almost  entirely  composed  of  cellu- 
lar texture,  the  cells  of  which  are  filled  with  juices  fitted  to 
refract  and  reflect  the  rays  of  light,  so  as  to  produce  the  bril- 
liant and  delicate  tints  which  constitute  so  great  a  portion  of 

Uses  of  the  epidermis  or  cuticle — Cellular  integument — Glands  of  the  cellu- 
lar  integument— Cellular  integument  in  roots — The  seat  of  colour — Cellular  in- 
tegument in  leaves,  &c. — In  aquatic  plants — How  renewed  in  the  trunks  of 
trees— Found  in  the  petals  of  flowers,  <fcc. 


feARK.  140 

their  beauty.  The  fuci,  a  species  of  sea  weed,  and  some  oth- 
er plants,  appear  to  be  altogether  composed  of  cellular  texture. 

3d.  Cortex.  Immediately  under  the  cellular  integument, 
we  find  the  true  bark,  which  in  plants  that  are  only  one  year 
old,  consists  of  one  simple  layer ;  but  in  trunks  of  older  trees, 
it  consists  of  as  many  layers  as  the  tree  has  numbered  years. 
The  cortex  is  formed  of  bundles  of  longitudinal  fibres  called 
cortical  vessels. 

The  peculiar  virtues  or  qualities  of  plants  chiefly  reside  in 
the  bark.  Here  we  find  the  resin  of  the  fir,  the  astringent 
principle  of  the  oak,  and  the  aromatic  oil  of  the  cinnamon. 

The  inner  cortical  layer  is  called  the  liber ;  it  is  here  only, 
that  the  essential  vital  functions  are  carried  on ;  this  integu- 
ment is  called  liber,  from  its  fine  and  thin  plates,  which  are 
thought  to  bear  some  resemblance  to  the  leaves  of  a  book, 
which  in  Latin  is  liber.  This  substance,  by  its  developement, 
produces  new  roots,  branches,  leaves,  flowers  and  fruits.  It 
is  composed  of  a  kind  of  net  work,  which  has  been  compared 
to  cloth ;  the  elongated  fibres  representing  the  warp,  and  the 
cellular  texture  the  filling  up.  It  has  been  observed  that  the 
cambium  descends  between  the  liber  and  the  wood,  and  that  a 
layer  of  new  liber  is  every  year  made  from  that  liquid  ;  as 
the  new  layer  is  formed  the  old  one  is  pushed  outward,  and  at 
length,  losing  its  vital  principle,  it  becomes  a  lifeless  crust. 
The  natives  of  Otaheite  manufacture  garments  from  the  liber 
of  the  paper  mulberry.  The  liber  of  flax  is  by  a  mo  re  refined 
process  converted  into  fine  linen.  This  part  of  the  bark  is  im- 
portant to  the  life  of  vegetables  ;  the  outer  bark  may  be  peeled 
off  without  injury  to  them,  but  the  destruction  of  the  liber  is 
generally  fatal. 

The  operation  of  girdling  trees,  which  is  often  practised  in 
new  countries,  consists  in  making,  with  an  axe,  one  or  more 
complete  circles  through  the  outer  bark  and  the  liber  of  the 
trunk.  Trees  seldom  survive  this  operation,,  especially  if  it 
have  been  performed  early  in  the  spring,  before  the  first  flow, 
of  the  sap  from  the  root  towards  the  extremities. 

During  the  repose  of  vegetation,  that  part  of  the  liber  most 
recently  organized,  and  which  of  course  retains  its  vital  pow- 
er, remains  inactive  between  the  wood  and  the  outer  layers  of 
the  bark,  until  the  warmth  of  spring  causes  the  ascent  of  the 
sap.  After  promoting  the  developement  of  buds,  and  the 
growth  of  new  radicles,  the  liber  hardens  and  becomes  lifeless 
like  that  of  the  preceding  year. 

Cortex,  or  true  bark—Liber—Annually  renewed— Girdling— What  ultimate- 
ly becomes  of  the  liber? 

13* 


150  PHYSIOLOGICAL  VIEWS. 

Fig.  93. 


i  n  g  0  a  e  a 

Fig.  93,  at  A,  represents  a  young  dicotyledonous  stem,  cut 
transversely ;  the  inner  circle  surrounds  the  pith  ;  the  wood 
extends  to  the  bark,  which  at  a  appears  darkly  shaded. 

At  B  is  a  section  of  the  same  stem  magnified  ;  a  b,  is  the 
bark  ;  b  i,  is  the  wood,  and  i  k,  the  pith. 

The  divisions  of  the  bark  may  be  seen  as  follows :  a  c,  rep- 
resents the  cuticle,  or  the  dry,  disorganized  part ;  at  c  d,  is  the 
cellular  integument;  at  d  b,  the  cortex,  the  extreme  part  of 
which,  as  at  b,  is  the  liber. 

Wood.  The  wood  (lignum)  consists  of  two  parts,  alburnum 
or  sap-wood,  and  perfect  wood. 

The  alburnum  is  so  called  from  albus,  white,  on  account  of 
the  paleness  of  its  colour.  This  is  the  most  newly  formed  wood, 
and  constitutes  the  outer  part  of  the  woody  substance  of  the 
plant.  It  is  at  first  soft  and  tender,  and  in  this  state  appears 
to  be  active  with  the  principle  of  life.  As  the  liber  is  formed 
annually  from  the  cambium  or  descending  sap,  new  layers  of 
alburnum  are  supposed  to  have  the  same  origin,  and  to  be 
formed  during  the  same  intervals  of  time.  Most  of  the  sap 
ascends  through  the  alburnum,  though  some  passes  through  the 
perfect  wood.  The  sap  which  nourishes  the  buds,  passes 
through  the  centre  of  the  stem,  and  from  thence  is  conveyed 
in  appropriate  vessels  to  the  buds. 

The  perfect  wood,  is  sometimes  called  the  heart ;  its  colour 
is  usually  darker  than  that  of  the  sap  wood,  and  its  texture  is 
firmer  and  more  compact ;  it  is  also  more  durable  for  timber. 
It  is  formed  by  the  gradual  concentration  and  hardening  of  the 
alburnum.  The  wood  constitutes  the  greater  part  of  the  bulk 

Describe  a  dicotyledonous  or  exogenous  stem— Wood— Alburnum— Perfect 
wood.  • 


WOOD  AND  PITH.  151  - 

of  trees  and  shrubs  ;  when  cut  across,  it  is  found  to  consist  of 
numerous  concentric  layers.  It  is  supposed  that  one  of  these 
circular  layers  is  formed  every  year. 

To  prove  that  the  wood  is  deposited  externally  from  the 
cambium,  pieces  of  metal  have  been  introduced  under  the 
barks  of  trees  that  were  growing,  the  wounds  carefully  bound 
up,  and  after  some  years  on  cutting  them  across,  the  layers  of 
new  wood  have  been  found  on  the  outside  of  the  metal. 

The  strength  and  hardness  of  wood,  is  owing  to  woody  fibres 
extending  longitudinally  ;  these  fibres  are  chiefly  of  vascular 
texture,  and  contain  sap,  and  the  various  secreted  juices  ;  some 
contain  only  air. 

For  illustration  of  the  formation  of  wood,  see  Fig.  93,  B, 
which  represents  a  section  of  a  woody  stem  of  three  years' 
growth ;  i  h,  is  a  layer  of  the  first  year's  growth,  and  the 
hardest  part  of  the  wood ;  h  g,  is  a  layer  of  the  second  year's 
growth ;  and  g  6,  of  the  third ;  the  latter  is  the  sap  wood  re- 
cently formed  from  the  cambium. 

Pith.  The  pith  (see  Fig.  93,  B,  at  k  andz,)  is  situated  in  the 
centre  of  the  trunk  and  branches  of  plants,  and  is  a  soft  spongy 
substance,  analogous  to  the  marrow  of  animals.  It  is  composed 
of  cellular  texture.  The  cells,  which  are  very  large  in  the 
elder,  are  filled  with  fluids  when  young,  but  in  old  branches  the 
fluids  disappear,  and  the  cells  are  filled  with  air.  In  general, 
herbs  and  shrubs  have  a  greater  proportion  of  pith  than  trees. 
It  is  also  more  abundant  in  young  than  old  vegetables ;  it  ex- 
tends  from  the  root  to  the  summit  of  the  trunk  or  stem  of  the 
plant. 

The  medullary*  rays  are  lines  which  diverge  from  the  pith 
towards  the  circumference  ;  they  are  fibrous  textures  interwo- 
ven in  the  wood,  the  alburnum,  and  the  different  layers  of  the 
bark.  The  netv  buds  seem  to  originate  from  the  points  at  which 
they  terminate. 

The  pith  has  been  compared  to  the  spinal  marrow  in  ani- 
mals ;  it  appears  to  be  an  important  part  of  the  vegetable  sub- 
stance, though  its  offices  are  perhaps  less  understood  than  those 
of  the  other  parts.  The  letters  e,  Fig.  93,  represent  the  me- 
dullary rays  as  proceeding  from  the  pith  and  terminating  in 
the  cellular  integument. 

You  are  not  to  expect  that  every  stem  or  branch  of  a  dico- 
tyledonous plant  will  present  you  with  all  the  various  parts 

*  So  called  from  medulla,  marrow,  a  name  often  given  to  the  pith. 

How  has  it  been  proved  that  wood  is  deposited  externally  ?  Strength  and 
hardness  of  wood — Pith — Medullary  rays — Pith,  to  what  compared — Various 
parts  not  always  distinct  in  different  plants. 


152  PHYSIOLOGICAL  VIEWS. 

which  we  have  described  as  constituting  the  vegetable  body  ; 
neither  when  they  exist  are  they  always  distinct,  for  as  there 
is  a  chain  of  connexion  between  them,  so  they  often  pass  into 
each  other  in  such  a  manner  as  to  leave  their  boundaries  diffi- 
cult to  define.  Many  species  of  plants  have  no  distinct  layers 
of  bark,  and  in  many  there  is  such  a  similarity  between  the 
alburnum  and  the  perfect  wood,  as  to  render  a  distinction  very 
difficult. 

Growth  of  a  Plant. 

Let  us  now  take  a  rapid  view  of  the  growth  of  a  woody  plant. 
Before  germination,  the  substance  of  the  plume  or  UM-< •ndini: 
part  of  the  embryo,  exhibits  a  delicate  and  regular  cellular 
texture  ;  where  the  liber  and  medullary  rays  are  to  be  formed, 
traces  of  cambium  appear. 

When  the  germination  commences,  the  vascular  system  be- 
gins to  organize  around  the  pith,  and  to  form  the  medullary 
rays ;  the  extremities  of  these  rays  exhibit  cellular  texture, 
which  is  soon  converted  into  liber.  See  /,  Fig.  93,  which 
shows  the  extremities  of  the  medullary  rays,  and  the  points 
where  the  liber  is  formed.  This  liber  at  first  expands,  then 
hardens,  and  is  at  length  converted  into  a  layer  of  alburnum  ; 
the  alburnum  gradually  acquires  tenacity  ;  the  cells  appear 
merged  into  vessels  of  a  firmer  kind,  and  it  is  no  longer  a  layer 
of  alburnum,  but  of  perfect  wood.  While  this  change  is  taking 
place,  the  cambium,  which  may  almost  be  termed  a  fluid,  cel- 
lular texture,  flowing  between  the  bark  and  the  wood,  repro- 
duces a  new  layer  of  liber,  which  in  its  turn  becomes  alburn- 
um and  then  perfect  wood  ;  to  this  succeeds  a  third  and  fourth 
layer,  and  thus  the  growth  of  the  vegetable  goes  on  until  death 
completes  its  term  of  existence. 

Each  layer  of  wood  is  generally  the  product  of  one  year's 
growth  ;  but  it  is  only  near  the  base  of  the  trunk,  that  the 
number  of  layers  of  wood  is  a  criterion  of  the  age  of  the  tree  ; 
for  in  trees  where  one  hundred  layers-may  be  counted  near  the 
base,  no  more  than  one  can  be  found  at  the  extremity  of  the 
branches.  These  layers,  then,  do  not  extend  through  the 
length  of  the  tree ;  but  while  the  base  exhibits  all  the  layers 
which  have  been  formed,  the  extremity  of  the  branches  con- 
tains under  the  bark  only  the  continuation  of  an  annual  layer. 

The  age  of  branches  may  be  determined  by  the  number  of 
layers  of  wood  at  the  base  of  each  branch. 

Appearance  of  a  woody  plant  before  germination,  or  while  in  embryo — 
Change  at  the  commencement  of  germination — Process  in  the  formation  of 
perfect  wood— Number  of  layers  of  wood  a  criterion  of  the  age  of  a  tree. 


GROWTH  OF  PLANTS.  153 

We  will  now  consider  the  manner  in  which  the  tree  increases 
in  height.  A  seed  germinates  ;  the  plume  rises  ;  the  liber,  by 
the  vegetative  power  is  urged  upward  ;  but  in  developing,  it 
gradually  becomes  less  capable  of  extension ;  at  length,  when 
it  is  converted  into  wood,  its  growth  ceases.  The  layer  of 
wood  then  exhibits  the  form  of  an  elongated  cone  ;  at  the  sum- 
mit of  the  cone  a  bud  is  formed,  from  which  a  new  shoot  issues ; 
a  new  liber  organizes  upon  the  surface  of  the  cone  ;  this  new 
liber  in  turn,  becomes  a  woody  cone  covering  the  one  first 
formed ;  and  thus  the  tree  goes  on  increasing  in  height  and  hi 
diameter.  The  terminal  bud  is  formed  each  successive  year. 
After  a  hundred  years  of  vegetation  a  hundred  cones  might  be 
found  boxed  into  each  other  in»the  manner  first  described*;  the 
spaces  comprised  between  the  summits  of  the  cones  would 
show  the  succession  and  elongation  of  the  annual  shoots. 

As  the  Wood  is  formed  by  the  conversion  of  cambium  into 
alburnum,  so  from  the  same  liquid,  the  inner  layers  of  bark  are 
formed,  to  renew  the  waste  occasioned  by  the  destruction  of 
the  epidermis.  While  the  wood  is  growing  externally,  that  is, 
at  an  increasing  distance  from  the  centre,  the  bark  is  forming 
internally,  and  the  new  layers  are  pressing  outward. 

The  growth  of  trunks,  which  we  have  hitherto  considered, 
has  relation  only  to  woody  plants,  but  there  is  a  marked  differ- 
ence in  the  growth  of  plants,  which  seems  to  originate  in  the 
peculiar  formation  of  their  seeds. 

Between  plants  which  grow  from  seeds  with  one  cotyledon, 
and  such  as  grow  from  seeds  with  two  cotyledons,  there  is  a 
great  difference  as  to  the  mode  of  organization. 

The  first  kind  of  plants  are  called  monocotykdonous ;  the 
second,  dicotyledonous.  Their  stems,  on  account  of  their  dif- 
ferent modes  of  growth,  have  been  distinguished  into  endogenous, 
signifying  to  grow  inwardly ;  and  exogenous,  signifying  to  grow 
outwardly.  The  discovery  of  the  different  modes  of  growth 
in  these  two  great  divisions  of  plants,  is  of  recent  origin,  and 
constitutes  an  important  era  in  vegetable  physiology. 

The  stems  of  monocotyledons,  or  endogenous  plants  have  sel- 
dom a  bark  distinct  from  the  other  texture  ;  they  have  no 
liber,  or  alburnum  disposed  in  concentric  layers  ;  they  have  no 
medullary  rays  ;  and  their  pith,  instead  of  being  confined  to 
the  centre  of  the  stem,  extends  almost  to  the  circumference. 

Advance  of  the  tree  in  height — Difference  in  the  growth  of  wood  and  bark — 
Kemarkson  the  different  organization  of  plants — Monocotyledonous  plants — 
Why  called  endogenous — Exogenous  plants— Describe  the  stem  of  a  mono- 
cotyledonous  plant. 


154 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  VIEWS. 


Fig.  94.  The  wood  is  divided  into  fibres  run- 

ning longitudinally  through  the 
stem  ;  (see  94,  where  the  dots  re- 
present the  fibres  ;)  each  of  tin -so 
fibres  seems  to  vegetate  separate- 
ly; they  are  ranged  around  a  cen- 
tral support  ;  and  are  so  disposed 
that  tin;  oldest  are  crowded  out- 
wardly by  the  xlevelopement  of 
n«  u  fibres  in  the  centre  of  the 
stem  ;  this  pressure  causes  the  ex- 
ternal layers  to  be  very  close  and 
compact.  This  mode  of  increase, 
little  favourable  to  growth  in  diameter,  produces  long  and 
straight  stems,  which  are  nearly  uniform  in  their  size  throutrh. 
out  their  whole  extent  ;  as  the  palms  and  sugar-canes  of  the 
tropics,  and  the  Indian  corn  of  our  climate.  Most  of  these 
plants  present  us  with  roots  of  the  fibrous  kind. 

a 


Fig.  95,  at  A,  represents  a  section  of  the  stipe  or  stem  of  a 
palm  tree ;  at  B  is  the  same  magnified  ;  a  b,  a  part  of  tho 
stipe  in  which  the  woody  fibres  are  most  dense  and  hard  ;  b  c, 
shews  the  fibres  less  numerous,  less  compact,  and  less  hard ; 
c  d,  the  woody  fibres,  tender  and  scattered ;  we  here  see  tho 
orifices  of  tubes,  which  have  disappeared,  at  c  a.  In  the  part 
c  dj  the  cellular  tissue  occupies  a  greater  space  than  at  c,  bt 
and  much  more  than  at  b  a,  where  the  woody  fibre  or  vascu- 
lar texture  predominates.  The  fibres  at  e,  are  of  new  forma- 
tion ;  atf  they  are  older,  and  at  g  still  more  ancient ;  thus  the 
developement  of  the  wood  proceeds  inversely  to  that  of  dico- 
tyledonous plants. 

Formation  of  epidermis — Deicribe  a  monocotyledonous  or  endogenous  stem. 


GROWTH  OF  PLANTS.  155 

Endogenous  plants  continue  to  increase  in  height,  long  after 
they  cease  to  grow  in  diameter :  the  stem  is  gradually  extend- 
ed upwards  by  new  terminal  shoots,  which  are  formed  annu- 
ally. The  epidermis  is  formed  of  the  foot  stalks  of  leaves, 
which  annually  sprout  from  the  rim  of  a  new  layer  of  wood ; 
the  leaves  falling  in  autumn,  their  foot-stalks  become  indurated, 
and  incorporate  themselves  into  the  outer  surface  of  the  plant. 

We  have  now  taken  a  brief  view  of  the  most  important  facts 
and  principles  which  constitute  the  science  of  vegetable  physi- 
ology, including*  anatomy.  That  you  may  have  found  the  sub- 
ject somewhat  tedious,  need  give  you  no  apprehension  that 
your  minds  are  not  fitted  for  minute  investigations.  The  most 
scientific  observer  of  nature,  cannot  but  feel,  with  yourselves, 
that  after  all  his  scrutiny,  organic  life  is  shrouded  in  mystery. 
Although  the  vegetable  structure  is  less  complicated  than  the 
animal,  there  are  many  analogies  between  them ;  and  many 
parts  of  the  former  have  been  named,  and  various  phenomena 
explained,  by  a  reference  to  names  and  principles  common  to 
animal  anatomy  and  physiology.  You  cannot  therefore  ex- 
pect, at  the  first  glance,  to  comprehend  explanations  which 
presuppose  some  knowledge  of  those  intricate  subjects.  By  at- 
tention to  the  vegetable  structure,  you  will,  doubtless,  be  in- 
duced to  think  more  upon  the  wonderful  mechanism  of  your 
own  material  frames,  and  upon  the  great  resemblance,  yet  in- 
finite difference,  between  yourselves  and  the  trees  of  the  forest, 
and  the  lilies  of  the  field. 

You  will,  in  the  language  of  the  Psalmist,  be  led  to  exclaim, 
"  Oh  Lord,  how  manifold  are  thy  works,  in  wisdom  hast  thou 
made  them  all !"  You  are  nourished  by  the  same  elements  as 
the  grass  that  perisheth ;  the  flowers  have  a  much  more  refined 
corporeal  substance  than  belongs  to  you ;  and  yet  hdw  much 
more  precious  are  you  in  the  sight  of  the  Almighty  than  the 
vegetable  creation. 

Do  you  ask,  why  you  are  of  more  value  "  than  the  lilies  of 
the  field,"  or  than  "  many  sparrows  ?"  It  is  the  very  princi- 
ple within  you  which  enables  you  to  make  this  inquiry,  that 
renders  you  thus  precious  ;  it  is  your  soul  that  raises  you  above 
the  inanimate  and  brute  creation.  Your  body  is  sister  to  the 
crawling  worm  and  noxious  weed ;  but  your  soul  may  aspire 
to  the  fellowship  of  angels,  and  to  be  an  inhabitant  of  heaven. 
Oh  then  let  me  entreat  you,  suffer  not  your  chief  thought  to  be 
given  to  the  decoration  of  the  perishable  part,  the  mere  tem- 
porary dwelling  place  of  the  immortal  mind !  but  seek  to  pre- 
pare this  mind  for  admission  into  "  the  glorious  company  of 
the  spirits  of  the  just,  now  made  perfect  in  heaven." 

The  wisdom  of  the  Creator  manifest  in  his  works — Reflection. 


156  PHYSIOLOGICAL  VIEWS. 

LECTURE  XIX. 

Chemical  Composition  of  Plants. 

WE  have,  according  to  our  method  of  arrangement,  con- 
sidered  the  anatomy  of  the  vegetable  in  connexion  with  its  phy- 
siology :  that  is,  when  treating  upon  each  particular  organ,  we 
have  remarked  upon  its  uses  in  the  life  and  growth  of  the  whole 
plant.  We  have  treated  of  the  germination  of  the  seed,  the 
minute  vessels  which  constitute  the  vegetable  fabric,  with  tho 
fluids  which  circulate  through  these  vessels  ;  we  have,  as  it 
were,  gathered  these  vessels  together  and  considered  them  as 
constituting,  in  various  ways,  three  essential  parts  of  woody 
plants,  the  bark,  wood  and  pith.  We  have  inquired  into  the 
manner  in  which  these  separate  parts  are  formed,  and  observed 
the  great  distinction  in  the  growth  of  the  stems  of  monocotyle- 
donous  and  dicotyledonous  plants. 

Yet,  although  we  have  seen  how  plants  grow,  it  is  no  easy 
thing  to  explain  how  they  live.  The  great  principle  which 
operates  in  organic  life,  appears  not  to  have  been  laid  open  to 
the  eye  of  man.  But  by  a  careful  observation  of  facts,  we  can 
learn  all  that  it  is  important  for  us  to  know  in  order  to  culti- 
vate plants  successfully ;  their  habits,  food,  and  the  causes  of 
their  diseases  and  death. 

The  physician  who  spends  a  long  and  laborious  life  in  the 
study  of  the  human  frame,  can  give  only  the  result  of  observa- 
tions, made  by  himself  or  others.  He  finds  a  certain  article 
efficacious  in  the  relief  of  a  particular  disease  ;  but  he  knows 
not  why  this  should  be  so ;  or  if  he  is  able  to  give  some  rea- 
sons, he  is  ultimately  arrested  in  his  speculations  by  a  barrier, 
which  he  cannot  pass.  Thus  he  knows  that  soda  or  pearl-ash 
correct  acidity  in  the  stomach  ;  ask  the  reason  of  this,  and  he 
tells  you  that  these  are  alkalies,  substances  which  neutralize 
acids,  and  thus  render  them  harmless  ;  inquire  still  farther, 
why  alkalies  do  thus  affect  acids,  and  the  physician  is  as  igno. 
rant  as  yourselves. 

Before  closing  our  view  of  the  vegetable  structure,  we  shall, 
by  the  aid  of  chemistry,  examine  the  elements  which  com- 
pose it. 

The  growth  of  vegetables,  and  the  increase  of  their  weight, 
show  that  they  imbibe  some  external  substances,  which  are  in- 
Retrospective  view  of  subjects  considered — Difficulty  in  investigating  the 
life  of  plants — How  far  can  a  physician  enlighten  others  ?—  Examination  of  the 
elements  which  compose  the  vegetable  structure. 


PROXIMATE  PRINCIPLES.  157 


corporated  into  their  own  substance.  This  constitutes 
tion,  and  distinguishes  living  substances  from  dead  matter.  A 
stone  does  not  receive  nourishment,  although  it  may  increase 
by  an  external  accumulation  of  matter.  "Vegetable  sub- 
stances, analyzed  by  a  chemical  process,  have  been  found  to 
contain  carbon,  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  sometimes  nitrogen,  sul- 
phur, silex  (a  flint-like  substance),  the  oxide  of  iron,  soda,  mag- 
nesia, and  chalk."*  These  different  substances  are  by  the 
root,  stems,  and  leaves  of  the  plant,  derived  from  the  earth, 
air,  and  water. 

Proximate  Principles. 

Vegetation  produces  chemical  combinations,  which  are  dis- 
tinguished by  the  name  of  proximate  principles.  Although  the 
proximate  principles  of  plants  are  very  numerous,  but  few  of 
them  are  well  known  ;  they  are  the  result  of  the  action  of  the 
vital  forces  of  plants,  and  are,  therefore,  important  subjects  of 
investigation  to  those  who  pursue  the  study  of  physiological 
botany  to  any  great  extent.  Carbon,  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and 
nitrogen,  are  the  constituent  parts  of  the  proximate  principles 
of  plants.  These  principles  may  be  divided  into  two  classes. 

I.  Those  principles  which  are  composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen 
and  oxygen,  without  any  nitrogen. 

II.  Such  as  contain,  besides  the  substances  belonging  to  the 
other  class,  some  nitrogen.     There  are  few  of  this  class. 

The  first  class  of  proximate  principles  is  divided  into  three 
orders. 

1st.  Principles  which  have  more  oxygen  than  sufficient  to  form 
water. 

2d.  Principles  in  which  oxygen  and  hydrogen  exist  in  the 
exact  proportion  to  form  water. 

3d.  Principles  where  hydrogen  is  in  excess. 

The  1st  order  includes  vegetable  acids  :  as, 

Acetic  acid,  or  pure  vinegar  ;  this  is  generally  produced  by 
fermentation  from  wine,  cider,  and  some  other  liquids  ;  it  is 
also  found  in  a  pure  state  in  the  campeachy  wood,  and  the  sap 
of  the  elm. 

Malic  acid  may  be  extracted  from  green  apples  and  the  bar- 
berry. 

Oxalic  acid  is  found  in  several  species  of  sorrel,  belonging  to 
the  genera  OXALIS  and  RUMEX. 

Tartaric  acid  is  obtained  from  the  tamarind  and  the  cran- 
berry ;  this  acid,  combined  with  potash,  forms  what  is  com- 
monly called  cream  of  tartar. 

*  Mirbel,  "  Elemens  de  Botanique." 

Proximate  principles  —  Proximate  principles  divided  into  two  classes  —  First 
class  divided  into  three  orders  —  First  order. 

14 


158  PHYSIOLOGICAL  VIEWS. 

Citric  acid  is  found  in  the  lemon ;  it  is  mixed  with  the  malic 
acid  in  the  gooseberry,  the  cherry  and  the  strawberry. 

Quinic  acid  is  obtained  from  the  Peruvian  bark  (Cinchona). 

Gallic  acid  is  obtained  from  the  oak,  and  the  sumach  ;  it  is 
highly  astringent. 

Benzole  acid  is  found  in  the  LAURUS  benzoin,  and  in  the  Va- 
nilla ;  this  is  highly  aromatic  ;  it  is  thought  to  give  the  agreea- 
ble odour  to  balms. 

Prussic  acid ;  this  acid  gives  out  a  strong  odour  like  bitter 
almonds ;  it  is  an  active  poison ;  it  is  obtained  from  peach 
meats  and  blossoms,  from  bitter  almonds,  &c. 

The  2d  order  includes  gums,  sugar,  &c. 

The  Gums.  Of  these  there  are  many  kinds ;  they  have 
neither  taste  nor  smell :  dissolved  in  water,  they  form  a  muci- 
lage more  or  less  thick.  The  principal  gums  are, 

Gum  Arabic,  which  flows  from  the  plant  MIMOSA  nilotica  ; 

Common  Gums,  such  as  issue  from  the  peach  tree,  the  cher- 
ry tree,  and  many  others. 

Sugar  is  a  substance  which  dissolves  in  water,  and  has  a 
sweet  taste  ,  it  is  obtained  from  the  sugar  cane,  the  sugar  ma- 
ple, from  the  stalks  of  indian  corn,  pumpkins,  beets,  and  sweet 
apples.  All  vegetables  which  have  a  sweet  taste  may  be 
made  to  yield  sugar. 

The  3d  order  includes  oils,  wax,  resins,  &c. 

Oils.  These  are  fluid  and  combustible  substances,  which 
do  not  unite  with  water.  They  are  divided  into  Fixed  and 
Volatile.  The  fixed  oils  are  thick,  and  have  little  odour. 

The  oil  of  sweet  almonds,  and  olive  oil,  grow  thick  and 
opaque  by  being  exposed  to  the  air. 

The  Oil  of  Flax  Seed,  called  linseed  oil,  and  some  other  oils, 
dry  without  losing  their  transparency  ;  it  is  this  quality  which 
renders  linseed  oil  so  valuable  to  painters. 

The  Volatile  oils  are  distinguished  from  the  fixed  oils  by 
their  aromatic  odours,  and  their  tendency  to  fly  off,  from  which 
circumstance  the  term  volatile  is  derived.  Some  of  these  oils 
are  those  of  the  orange,  lavender,  rose,  jasmine,  peppermint, 
and  wintergreen.  These  oils  are  sometimes  greatly  reduced 
by  being  mixed  with  alcohol,  and  are  then  called  essences. 
The  volatile  oils  may  be  found  in  a  great  variety  of  plants,  par- 
ticularly those  of  the  Labiate  family. 

The  Aroma,  or  aromatic  property,  consists  chiefly  of  the 
odours  which  are  exhaled  from  plants,  containing  volatile  oil ; 
it  is  this  oil  which  throws  out  the  aromatic  odour  of  the  ginger 
plant,  of  the  myrtle,  rose,  and  other  sweet  scented  plants. 

Second  order— Third  order— What  substances  besides  oils  belong  to  th« 
third  order  of  the  fir.u  class  of  proximate  principles  ? 


PROXIMATE  PRINCIPLES.  159 

Aromatic  plants  are  much  more  common  in  hot,  than  cold 
countries ;  most  of  our  aromatic  spices  are  found  in  the 
equatorial  regions. 

Wax  is  found  on  the  surface  of  the  fruit  of  the  bay-berry 
(MYRICA  cerifera).  Beeswax  is  an  animal  production,  made 
by  the  bees  from  pollen  or  farina  of  plants. 

Camphor  has  much  analogy  with  the  volatile  oils  ;  it  is  an 
extract  from  the  LAURUS  camphora,  or  camphor  tree  of  Japan. 

RESIN  exudes  from  the  pine,  and  some  other  trees  ;  it  is  dry, 
insoluble  in  water,  but  soluble  in  alcohol  and  very  inflamma- 
ble. 

The  people  in  new  countries  often  use,  as  a  substitute  for 
lamps,  pine  knots,  which,  abounding  in  resin,  burn  with  a 
bright  flame. 

The  difference  between  resin  and  the  volatile  oils,  appears  to 
consist  in  the  action  of  oxygen  upon  the  resin ;  for  the  oil  in  ab- 
sorbing oxygen  from  the  air,  passes  into  the  resinous  state. 

Resins  mixed  with  volatile  oils  form  balsams  ;  thick,  odor- 
ous, and  inflammable  substances  of  this  kind  are  the  balsam 
copaiva,  dragon's  blood,  which,  notwithstanding  its  terrific 
name,  is  but  the  simple  extract  of  a  plant,  (!)RAC(ENA  draco ;) 
the  balsam  of  Tolu  is  the  extract  of  the  TOLUIFERA  balsamum. 

These  resins  are  sometimes  mixed  with  gums,  they  are  then 
called  gum-resins ;  of  this  kind  are  gamboge,  assafoetida,  guaia- 
cum,  aloes,  an  extract  from  the  ALOE  perfoliata.  These  gum- 
resins  in  flowing  from  vegetables  are  sometimes  white  and  liquid 
like  milk,  but  they  usually  become  brown  and  hard  by  expo- 
sure to  the  air. 

Indian  rubber*  or  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  gum  elastic,  is 
the  product  of  a  South  American  tree,  (called  the  SIPHONIA 
elastica,)  an  East  Indian  plant,  (the  URCEOLA  elastica,)  and 
some  other  trees  in  the  equatorial  regions  ;  by  exposure  to  the 
air  it  hardens,  becomes  brown,  and  takes  the  appearance  of 
leather ;  it  can  neither  be  dissolved  by  water  nor  alcohol. 
The  juice  of  the  milk  weed  is  said  to  be  similar  to  that  of  the 
Siphonia  elastica,  and  that  of  other  plants  from  which  the  In- 
dian rubber  is  made.t 

The  green  principle.  It  is  to  this  principle  that  all  the  green- 
parts,  exposed  to  light,  owe  their  colour ;  it  undergoes  changes 
in  the  different  states  of  the  plant,  in  autumn  becoming  brown 
or  yellow.  Davy  attributes  the  change  of  colour  to  the  form- 
ation of  some  acid ;  you  know  that  a  drop  of  sour  wine,  lemon 

*  Caoutchouc. 

t  Mr.  H.  Eaton,  assistant  professor  at  the  Rensselaer  Institution,  prepared  a 
small  quantity  of  the  juice  of  the  milk  weed  (Asclepias)  in  such  a  manner  that 
it  could  not  be  distinguished  from  the  imported  Indian  rubber,  either  in  external 
appearance,  or  in  its  properties. 


160  PHYSIOLOGICAL  VIEWS. 

juice,  or  any  other  acid,  will  turn  green  to  a  brown  or  yellow 
colour. 

The  second  class  of  proximate  principles  consists  of  sub- 
stances which,  like  the  first  class,  are  formed  of  carbon,  hy- 
drogen, and  oxygen  ;  but  to  these  is  added  nitrogen.  In  this 
class  we  find, 

Opium,  a  narcotic  principle,  extracted  from  the  poppy.  It 
is  soluble  in  alcohol,  slightly  soluble  in  water. 

Hematine;  this  is  the  colouring  principle,  from  the  cam- 
peachy  wood. 

Indigo,  a  colouring  substance,  obtained  from  several  species 
of  Indigofera,  or  the  indigo  plant. 

Gluten,  is  extracted  from  the  cotyledons  of  the  seeds  of  legu- 
minous plants,  as  peas,  beans  ;  and  from  the  albu  tien  of  wheat, 
rye,  &c.  It  is  obtained  by  separating  it  from  the  starch  ;  flour 
owes  much  of  its  nourishing  properties  to  gluten ;  which  in 
some  respects  is  analogous  to  animal  principles,  and  like  them 
is  subject  to  putrefaction. 

Jelly p,  is  the  thickened  juice  of  succulent  fruits ;  as  currants, 
quinces,  and  apples ;  it  is  soluble  in  hot  water,  though  scarcely 
so  in  cold ;  when  heated,  it  loses  its  jelly-like  form,  which  is 
that  of  a  coagulated  mass,  between  a  liquid  and  a  solid,  suscepti- 
ble of  a  tremulous  motion  ;  by  long  boiling,  the  juice  loses  the 
property  which  gives  to  jelly  its  peculiar  appearance.  Many 
colouring  principles  have  never  been  separated  from  the  sub- 
stances to  which  they  are  united  ;  as  those  of  saffron,  logwood, 
&c. 

It  has  already  been  suggested,  that  the  red  colour  of  fruits 
arises  from  the  combination  of  an  acid,  with  a  blue  colouring 
principle  ;  you  know  that  the  effect  of  mixing  any  acid  with 
an  infusion  of  blue  violets,  or  any  vegetable  blue,  is  to  give  a 
red  tinge,  varying  in  shade  from  a  purple  red  to  a  brilliant 
scarlet,  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  acid. 

It  has  also,  upon  the  same  principle,  been  supposed  that  the 
purple,  red,  and  blue  colouring  of  the  petals  of  flowers  is 
owing  to  different  proportions  of  acid  ;  this  may  explain  the 
change  of  colour  which  appears  in  some  flowers,  which  pass 
from  blue  to  red  ,  as  the  changeable  hydrangea.  This  change 
may  be  attributed  to  increase  of  acid  combining  with  the  blue 
colouring  principle.*  Some  red  flowers  become  blue ;  they 
are  in  this  case  supposed  to  have  parted  with  some  portion  of 
the  acid,  which  was  united  with  their  colouring  principle. 

*  Iron  is  supposed  to  be  combined  with  the  oxygen  of  the  acid. 

What  new  element  is  found  in  the  second  class  of  proximate  principles  ? — 
What  substances  are  found  in  this  class? — Cause  of  the  red  colour  of  fruit — 
Of  the  various  hues  of  the  petals  of  flowers.  •  ,•  - 


PROXIMATE  ELEMENTS.  161 

Chemical  composition  of  the  Sap. 

The  sap  is  a  transparent,  colourless  fluid,  imbibed  by  the 
vegetable  from  the  earth  and  air  ;  or  more  properly,  from  the 
water  existing  in  them,  which  holds  in  solution  oxygen,  hydro- 
gen, carbon,  nitrogen,  earths,  mineral-salts,  and  animal  and 
vegetable  matter.  We  might  suppose,  that  being  derived  from 
the  same  source,  the  sap  in  all  vegetables  would  be  alike,  but 
it  is  never  obtained  pure ;  it  is  mingled  with  the  proximate 
principles,  or  proper  juices,  and  thus  differs  in  different  species 
of  vegetables  ;  water,  however,  constitutes  the  principal  part 
in  all. 

The  following  result  of  the  analysis  of  the  sap  of  some 
vegetables  has  been  offered  by  a  French  chemist.* 

Sap  of  the. elm,  (ULMUS  campcstris,)  water,  volatile  matter, 
acetate  of  potash,  carbonate  of  lime,  vegetable  matter,  sul- 
phate of  potash. 

Sap  of  the  beech,  (FAGTJS  sylvatica,)  water,  acetate  of  lime, 
with  excess  of  acid,  acetate  of  potash,  gallic  acid,  tannin,  mu- 
cous extract,  acetate  of  alumine. 

Sap  of  the  Horse  Chesnut,  (J&scuLvshippocastanum,)  water, 
extractive  mucous  matter,  nitre,  acetate  of  potash,  and  car- 
bonate of  lime. 

These  few  examples  of  the  decomposition  of  vegetable  prin- 
ciples show  how  wide  a  field  is  open  to  the  chemist,  in  the 
study  of  vegetable  elements. 

It  may  seem  wonderful,  that  of  so  few  elementary  substan- 
ces, such  a  great  variety  should  exist  in  the  taste,  smell,  colour, 
consistence,  medicinal  and  nutricious  qualities  of  vegetable 
combinations ;  is  it  not  equally  wonderful  that,  with  the  nine 
digits  and  the  cipher,  we  may  make  such  varied  combinations 
of  numbers ;  or  with  our  twenty -six  letters  of  the  alphabet,  form 
every  variety  of  composition  ?  Thus,  by  the  various  combina- 
tions of  a  few  simple  principles,  are  formed  all  vegetable  and 
animal  productions ;  and,  although  formerly,  the  presence  of 
nitrogen  was  considered  as  a  test  of  animal  substance,  and  the 
want  of  it  of  a  vegetable  substance,  it  is  now  ascertained  that 
animal  substances  may  exist  without  nitrogen,  and  that  this 
principle  is  contained  in  several  vegetables. 

The  elements  of  the  compounds  being  the  same,  the  question 
naturally  arises,  what  causes  the  great  diversity  in  the  proper- 
ties ?  Two  causes  may  be  assigned  for  this ;  viz.  1st.  The 
*  Vauqnelin. 

Sap— Of  the  elm— Of  the  beech— Of  the  horse  chesnut— All  vegetable  and 
animal  productions  composed  of  a  few  simple  principles — Illustration — What 
two  causes  assigned  for  the  different  properties  of  compounds  formed  from 
the  same  elements? 

14* 


162  PHYSIOLOGICAL  VIEWS. 

different  proportions  in  which  the  elements  are  combined*     2nd. 
The  various  modes  of  their  combination. 

In  vinegar  and  sugar,  the  one  substance  a  liquid,  and  of  a 
sour  taste,  the  other  solid  and  sweet,  are  found  the  same  ele- 
ments in  different  proportions  and  differently  combined.  In 
gum,  starch,  and  sugar,  the  elements  are  the  same,  the  propor- 
tions nearly  the  same,  but  they  are  combined  differently, 

When  we  know  by  chemical  analysis,  the  combinations 
which  exist  in  inorganized  bodies,  we  can  by  putting  the  same 
together,  often  form  similar  substances  ;  but  we  cannot  thus 
form  organized  bodies ;  for  to  these  belongs  a  living  principle, 
which  it  is  not  in  the^ power  of  man  to  bestow.  It  is  said,  Rous- 
seau declared,  that  he  would  not  believe  in  the  correctness  of 
the  analysis  of  vegetable  or  animal  substances,  until  he  should 
see  a  young  animal  or  a  thrifty  plant  spring  into  existence,  from 
the  retort  of  a  chemist.  But  the  power  to  create,  the  Almighty 
has  not  delegated  to  man ;  neither  is  it  to  be  supposed  that  any 
future  discoveries  in  science  will  ever  confer  it  upon  him.  To 
study  into  the  compound  nature  of  substances,  to  classify,  ar- 
range, and  by  various  combinations  to  beautify  the  world  of 
matter,  to  cultivate  the  faculties  of  mind,  until  stronger  and 
brighter,  the  mental  vision  sees  facts  and  principles  before  invi- 
sible ;  these  are  the  high  privileges  bestowed  on  man  ;  but  to 
add  one  new  particle  to  matter,  or  one  new  faculty  to  the  mind, 
is  beyond  the  power  of  the  whole  human  race. 

Examples— Can  organized  bodies  be  produced  by  the  skill  of  man  ? 


PART  III. 

CLASSIFICATION. 

Note.  As  the  pupil,  in  the  first  part  of  this  volume,  is  introduced  to  a  know- 
ledge of  the  leading  principles  of  the  Linnsean  system,  some  repetition  must 
necessarily  occur  in  the  following  part,  in  which  the  principles  of  classifica- 
tion are  to  be  more  fully  considered. 


LECTURE  XX. 

Method  of  Tournefort. — System  of  Linnceus. — Method  of  Jussieu: 
Natur'al  Method  of  Linnceus. 

LET  us  now  imagine  the  whole  vegetable  kingdom,  comprising 
innumerable  millions  of  individual  plants,  to  be  spread  out  before 
a  botanist.  Could  he,  in  the  course  of  the  longest  life,  number 
each  blade  of  grass,  each  little  moss,  each  shrub,  or  even  each 
tree  1  If  he  could  not  even  count  them,  much  less  could  he  give 
each  one  a  separate  name  and  description.  But  he  does  not 
need  to  name  them  separately,  for  he  sees  that  nature  has 
arranged  them  into  sorts  or  kinds. 

Were  you  sent  into  the  fields  to  gather  flowers  of  a  similar 
kind,  you  would  need  no  book  to  direct  you  to  put  into  one 
parcel,  all  the  red  clover  blossoms,  and  into  another,  the  white 
clover  ;  while  the  dandelions  would  form  another  group. 
These  all  constitute  different  species.  Nature  would  also 
teach  you  that  the  red  and  white  clover,  although  differing  from 
each  other  in  some  particulars,  yet  bear  a  strong  resemblance. 
By  placing  them  together  you  form  a  genus,  and  to  this  genus 
you  refer  all  the  different  kinds  or  species  of  clover.  When 
you  see  the  red,  damask,  and  cinnamon  roses,  you  perceive 
they  all  have  such  strong  marks  of  resemblance  as  to  entitle 
them  to  be  placed  together  in  one  genus.  But  yet  you  know 
that  the  seed  of  a  damask  rose  would  never  produce  a  red  rose. 
One  species  of  plants  can  never  produce  another  species,  how- 
ever near  may  be  their  resemblance. 

The  whole  number  of  species  of  plants  which  have  been 
named  and  described,  including  many  which  have  been  recently 
discovered  in  New  Holland  and  about  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
is  said  to  be  56,000.* 

*  According  as  recently  reported  by  the  Baron  Humboldt,  to  the  French  Na- 
tional Institute. 

Nature  arranges  plants  into  kinds  or  sorts — Examples — Number  of  species 
of  plants. 


164  CLASSIFICATION. 

If  species  of  plants  were  described  without  any  regular 
order,  we  could  derive  no  pleasure,  and  very  little  advantage 
from  the  study  of  practical  botany.  If  we  wished  to  find  out 
the  name  of  a  plant,  we  should  be  obliged  to  turn  over  the 
leaves  of  a  large  volume,  without  any  rule  to  guide  us  in  our 
search. 

The  necessity  of  some  kind  of  system  was  so  apparent,  that 
many  attempts  for  the  methodical  arrangement  of  plants,  were 
made,  before  the  time  of  Linnaeus ;  but  his  system  was  so 
superior  to  all  others,  that  it  was  no  sooner  published  to  the 
world,  than  it  was  adopted  by  the  universal  consent  of  all  men 
of  science. 

Previous  to  this  time,  Tournefort,  a  native  of  France,  hail 
published  an  ingenious  method  of  arrangement,  beautiful  by  its 
simplicity,  but  imperfect,  on  account  of  the  vagueness  of  its 
application.  The  characters  of  his  classes  were  founded  upon 
the  absence,  presence,  and  form  of  the  corolla.  Tournefort 
made  twenty-two  classes ;  these  he  subdivided  into  sections  or 
orders. 

The  first  seventeen  classes  contained  herbs  and  shrubs ;  the 
remaining/ve  contained  trees. 

The  division  of  the  first  seventeen  classes,  or  those  which 
contain  herbs  and  shrubs,  was  as  follows. 

The  first/bur  classes  had  monopetalous  corollas ;  they  were 
Bell-form,  Funnel-form,  Labiate  and  Personate. 

The  seven  following  classes  contained  the  Cruciform,  Rosa- 
ceous, Umbelliferous,  Caryophyllous,  Liliaceous,  Papilionaceous, 
and  the  Anomalous. 

The  three  following  included  the  Compoundjlowers. 

The  three  next  following,  included ; 

1st.  Plants  having  Stamens  without  a  corolla. 

2d.  Such  as  had  no  flower. 

3d.  Such  as  had  neither  flower  nor  fruit. 

Next  followed  the  arrangement  of  large  and  small  trees. 

The  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  classes  were  Apetalous,  hav- 
ing corollas  without  petals ;  and  Amentaceous,  having  flowers 
in  a  catkin ;  as  the  chesnut  and  willow. 

The  twentieth  class  contained  such  large  and  small  trees  as 
had  monopetalous  corollas. 

The  twenty-first  and  twenty-second  classes  contained  such 
large  and  small  trees  as  had  polypetalous  corollas ;  Rosaceous, 
as  the  apple  and  lilac,  or  papilionaceous,  as  the  locust.  ,r 

Necessity  of  order  in  description — Attempts  at  arrangement  made  before  the 
time  of  Linnaeus. — Tournefort's  classes,  on  what  founded — How  many—  Men- 
tion the  divisions  of  the  first  seventeen — Eighteenth  and  nineteenth  classes — 
Twentieth  class — Twenty-first  and  twenty-second  classes. 


METHOD  OF  TOURNEFORT. 


165 


Synopsis  of  the  method  of  Tournefort. 


simple 


I       Corollas 
1  monopetalous. 


Corollas 
polypetalous. 


HERBS. 


»**»{ 


5  Cruciform. 

6  Rosaceous. 
Regular.  </     7   Umbelliferous. 

8  Caryophyllous. 

9  Liliaceous. 

«**•««"* 
Anomalous. 

Flosculus. 
Composed.  <  13  Semi-Flosculus. 
14  Radiated. 


Irregular.  \ 
£ 


Without  petals 
or  apetalous 


r  15  Apetalous  with  stamens. 
,  I  16  Apetalous  without  stamens. 
1  17  Apetalous  without  Jlowers 
t  or  fruit. 


Flowers 

j  >o  talons. 


TREES. 

Without  (18  Trees  apetalous. 
petals.   {19  Trees  amentaceous. 
Corollas     C  20  Trees  with  monopetalous  flowers. 
JU2J"^|  21   Trees  with  rosaceous  flowers. 
{.    "petdous/'-J  22  Trees  with  papilionaceous  flowers. 
After  having  derived  from  the  corolla  the  distinctions 'of 
classes,  Tournefort  subdivided  them  into  orders,  or  as  he  called 
them,  sections.     These  orders  were  founded  upon  the  obser- 
vation of  the  pistil,  calyx,  fruit,  fyc. 

The  first  step  in  this  classification,  or  the  separation  of  shrubs 
and  trees  was  wrong.  The  distinction  between  a  small  tree 
and  shrub,  cannot  be  accurately  defined ;  there  are  many 
plants  which  we  should  doubt  whether  to  class  among  large 
shrubs  or  small  trees.  Two  circumstances  were,  by  Tourne- 
fort, relied  on  as  a  foundation  for  this  distinction ;  viz.  that 
shrubs  do  not  form  buds  for  the  future  year ;  and  secondly,  the 
difference  in  the  size  of  trees  and  shrubs.  With  respect  to  the 
formation  of  buds,  the  distinction  is  not  found  to  be  invariable, 
as  some  shrubs  do  form  buds,, and  some  trees  do  not.  With 
respect  to  size,  the  variation,  even  in  the  same  species,  is  such, 
in  different  soils  and  situations,  that  it  cannot  be  admitted  as 
a  mark  of  distinction. 


Synopsis  of  Tournefort's  method — Orders— Defects  in  Tournefort's  classifi- 
cation— Difficulty  of  determining  between  buds  and  shrubs. 


166  CLASSIFICATION. 

Different  species,  even  in  the  same  genus,  sometimes  differ 
in  their  stems ;  some  being  woody  and  others  herbaceous. 
Neither  is  the  form  of  the  corolla  to  be  depended  on ;  even  in 
the  most  natural  families  of  plants,  we  find  flowers  of  different 
forms,  as  in  different  species  in  the  natural  order  Solaneae, 
where  the  mullein  is  wheel-form,  the  tobacco  funnel-form,  and 
the  atropa  bell-form. 

System  of  Linnaeus. 

We  shall  not  now  attempt  to  give  a  view  of  the  system  of 
Linnaeus,  as  we  are  hereafter  to  consider  it  in  detail.  We  in- 
troduce it  here  merely  to  compare  it  with  other  modes  of  clas- 
sification. The  removing  of  plants  which  are  nearly  allied  in 
their  natural  character,  to  different  classes,  by  means  of  any  ar- 
tificial principle  of  classification,  ought  as  far  as  possible  to  be 
avoided  ;  and  although  the  system  of  Linnaeus,  as  you  will  find, 
when  we  compare  it  with  natural  families,  is  not  wholly  free 
from  this  confusion,  it  is  much  more  so  than  any  other  which 
has  been  invented. 

Although  we  do  not  now  receive  the  method  of  Tournefort, 
for  practical  uses,  a  knowledge  of  it  may  extend  your  views  of 
botanical  science.  When  we  accustom  ourselves  to  take  but 
one  view  of  a  subject,  we  are  in  danger  of  acquiring  a  contract- 
ed mode  of  thought.  We  are  not  to  suppose  that  the  system 
of  Linnaeus  is  entirely  perfect ;  but  may  well  imagine  that 
men  of  science  will  arise,  who  shall  discover  principles  now 
hidden,  and  look  back  upon  what  they  will  call,  the  very  im- 
perfect state  of  our  sciences.  We  should  rejoice  that  the  hu- 
man race  is  thus  destined  to  a  degree  of  improvement  beyond 
our  highest  powers  of  calculation. 

"  What  should  we  think  of  a  savage,  if,  in  the  pride  of  his 
ignorance,  he  was  to  conceive  his  own  thoughts  and  feelings  to 
be  the  noblest  of  which  the  human  intellect  is  capable  ?  And 
perhaps  even  the  mind  of  a  Newton,  is  but  the  mind  of  such  a 
savage  compared  to  what  man  is  hereafter  to  become."* 

The  system,f  of  Linnaeus  has  already  in  its  principal  features 
been  laid  before  you,  in  the  views  of  artificial  classes  and  or- 

*  Brown. 

t  System  differs  from  method  in  having  but  one  single  primitive  character, 
and  in  founding  its  principal  divisions  upon  the  consideration  of  only  one  single 
organ  or  principle.  Linnaeus  founded  his  system  upon  the  consideration  of 
the  stamens  as  more  or  less  numerous,  upon  their  proportion,  connexion,  and 
their  absence.  Newton  founded  his  system  of  Natural  Philosophy  upon  at- 
traction. The  vital  principle  is  the  foundation  of  all  systems  of  Physiology. 
Method  is  not  confined  to  the  consideration  of  one  character ;  it  employs  all 
•uch  as  are  conspicuous  and  invariable. 

System  of  Linnaeus  not  entirely  perfect — Advantages  of  taking  different 
views  of  a  subject — Human  mind  destined  to  progressive  improvement — Dif- 
ference between  system  and  method  (see  note). 


SYSTEM  OF  LINISMEUS.  167 

ders.*  This  system  not  only  includes  within  it  all  known 
plants,  but  is  founded  on  such  principles  as  must  comprehend 
within  it  whatever  plants  may  yet  be  discovered.  Its  author 
believed  that  no  plant  was  destitute  of  stamens  and  pistils :  but 
at  the  same  time,  that  there  were  species  in  which  these  or- 
gans  were  so  small,  so  obscure,  or  of  such  a  singular  formation 
as  to  render  it  difficult,  and  sometimes  impossible  to  be  certain 
of  their  existence,  except  by  the  principle  of  analogy.  There- 
fore, he  made  the  two  grand  divisions  of  plants,  Phenogamous, 
such  as  have  stamens  and  pistils  visible,  and  Cryptogamous,  sta- 
mens and  pistils  invisible.^ 

The  following  comparison  has  been  very  properly  made  by 
Botanists,  as  an  illustration  of  the  divisions  in  the  system  of 
Linnaeus. 

Classes  are  compared  to  States. 
Orders,  to  Towns. 

Genera,  to  Families. 

Species,  to  Individuals. 

You  must  not  forget,  while  considering  this  system,  that 
plants  themselves  are  the  only  real  substances ;  species,  genus, 
order  and  class,  are  mere  abstract  terms,  denoting  certain  dis- 
tinctions which  would  equally  have  existed,  although  we  had 
never  observed  them,  or  given  them  names. 

An  Individual  is  an  organized  being,  complete  in  its  parts, 
distinct  and  separate  from  all  other  beings.  An  oak,  a  rose, 
and  a  moss,  are  each  of  them  individuals  of  the  vegetable  king- 
dom. 

A  Species  includes  such  individuals  as  agree  in  certain  circum- 
stances of  the  roots,  stems,  leaves  and  inflorescence.  We  have 
no  reason  to  suppose  that  any  new  species,  either  of  animals  or 
vegetables,  have  been  produced  since  the  creation.  We  some- 
times see  varieties  in  plants  made  by  cultivation  ;  the  stamens 
and  pistils,  from  excess  of  nourishment,  expanding  into  petals. 
Varieties  are  also  occasioned  by  strewing  the  pollen  from  one 
species,  upon  the  stigma  of  another  ;  but  these  varieties  do  not 
produce  perfect  seed,  and  therefore  cannot  reproduce  them- 
selves by  their  seed.  The  colour,  taste  and  size,  are  not  con- 
sidered as  marks  of  specific  difference. 

A  Genus  comprehends  one  or  more  species,  grouped  togeth- 
er on  account  of  some  resemblance  in  situation,  proportion, 
and  connexion  of  the  organs  which  constitute  the  flower.  Any 

*  See  part  I,  page  29. 

t  Mirbel  believes  there  are  some  plants  absolutely  destitute  of  stamens  and 
pistils  ;  these  he  calls  agamous. 

System  of  Linnaeus  provides  for  the  classification  of  such  plants  as  are  yet 
to  be  discovered— Illustrations  of  its  divisions— Plants  the  only  real  substances 
— Individual — Species —Genus. 


168  CLASSIFICATION. 

one  species  of  a  genus  may  be  regarded  as  a  type  or  example 
of  the  others  ;  we  may  easily  refer  species  which  we  have  not 
studied  to  their  proper  genus,  by  a  knowledge  of  any  one  spe- 
cies of  that  genus.  Some  genera  appear  to  be  distinctly 
marked  by  nature ;  the  various  species  of  the  rose,  form  a 
beautiful  genus  which  is  known  to  all,  although  every  one 
might  not  be  able  to  describe  it  to  others,  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  be  understood ;  it  is  chiefly  distinguished  by  its  urn-shaped 
and  fringed  calyx. 

The  Generic  names  of  plants  'are  derived  from  various  cir- 
cumstances ;  in  some  cases  from  a  peculiarity  of  form  or  colour 
of  the  corolla  or  some  property  of  the  plant,  and  some  are 
named  from  distinguished  persons. 

Thus  Iris,  (flag,)  is  named  from  Iris  the  rain  bow,  on  ac- 
count of  its  various  shades  of  colour. 

Digitalis,  (fox-glove,^  named  from  digitus,  a  finger,  on  ac- 
count of  the  shape  of  its  corolla,  like  the  finger  of  a  glove. 
Convallaria,  (lily  of  the  valley,)  named  from  a  Latin  word 
convallis,  signifying  valley. 

Teucrium  (germander,)  named  in  honour  of  Teucer,  a  Trojan 
prince,  who  is  said  to  have  discovered  this  plant.  The  Eng- 
lish name,  germander,  is  supposed  to  have  originated  from  the 
word  Scamander,  the  name  of  a  river  of  ancient  Troy. 

The  name  of  the  great  Linnaeus  is  commemorated  in  a 
beautiful  and  modest  flower,  called  the  Linnaa  borealis.* 

Specific  names  are  generally  adjectives ;  generic  names  are 
nouns.  The  specific  name  sometimes  indicates  the  number  of 
leaves,  as  ORCIIJS  bifolia,  (bifolia,  signifies  two  leaves,)  or  the 
colour  of  the  corolla ;  as  VIOLA,  tri-colour,  (three  coloured 
violet,)  or  the  form  of  the  root ;  SOLANUM  tuberosum  ;  (with  a 
tuberous  root ;)  specific  names  are  also  derived  from  the  names 
of  persons  ;  thus  a  species  of  Origanum  is  named  tournefortiiy 
after  its  discoverer  Tournefort. 

Metliod  of  Jussieu. 

The  natural  method  consists  in  bringing  together  such  plants 
as  seem  by  nature  to  be  constituted  one  family,  resembling 
each  other  in  general  appearances  and  medicinal  qualities  ;  as 
lilies,  herbs,  trees,  mosses  and  ferns.  Some  of  these  natural 

•  Borealis  signifying  northern,  has  reference  to  the  situation  of  the  country 
which  gave  birth  to  Linnaeus.  The  Linnsea  borealis  is  not  uncommon  in  New 
England,  and  has  been  found  on  an  Island,  in  the  Hudson,  near  Troy. 

A  knowledge  of  one  species  in  a  genus  enables  us  to  recognize  all  other 
species  of  the  same  genus — Derivations  of  generic  names — Generic  names — 
Iris— Digitalis— Teucrium— Lmnaa  borealis— Specific  names— Natural  meth- 
od. 


SYSTEM  OF  LINN^US.  169 

families  show  a  similarity  in  form  and  quality,  and  are  evident, 
ly  distinct  from  all  others.  If  the  whole  vegetable  kingdom 
could  thus  be  distributed  into  natural  tribes,  we  should  need 
no  other  system  than  that  of  nature.  But  as  we  proceed  on 
this  plan  we  soon  find  difficulties ;  for  after  selecting  a  few 
families  which  nature  seems  to  have  formed  with  striking 
marks  of  resemblance,  we  find  others  more  obscure,  and  we 
at  length  see  a  vast  number  of  plants  which  cannot  be  referred 
to  any  natural  families. 

We  shall  consider  two  natural  methods  of  Classification ; 
viz.  those  of  Linnaeus,  and  Jussieu  ;  the  arrangement  of  the 
latter,  is  highly  valuable  in  the  study  of  Medicinal  Botany. 

The  characters  employed  in  this  method  are, 

1.  The  structure  of  the  Seed. 

2.  Insertion  of  the  Stamens. 

3.  Absence,  presence,  and  form  of  the  Corolla. 

4.  Union  or  separation  of  Stamens  and  Pistils. 

5.  Union  or  separation  of  the  Anthers. 

1.  The  Seed,  considered  with  respect  to  Cotyledons.*     A 
plant  without  cotyledons  is  called,  A'cotyledonous,  with  one, 
Mono'cotyledonous,  and  with  two,  Dicotyledonous. 

2.  The  Stamens  are  inserted  above  the  germ,  under  the 
germ,  or  around  the  germ:    the  1st  is  Epi'gynous,   the  2d 
Hypo'gynous,  the  3d  Peri'gynous. 

3.  A'petalous,  having  no  corolla,  Mono'petalous,  all  of  one 
piece,  or  Poly'petalous,  many  petals. 

4.  Mono'clinious,  Stamens  and  Pistils  on  the  same  corolla, 
Di'clinious,  Stamens  and  Pistils  on  different  corollas. 

5.  Anthers  distinct,  or  anthers  joined. 

Synopsis  of  Jussieu* s  method. 

ACOTYLEDONS,  CLASS    1 

(  Stamens  liypogynous,  2 

MONOCOTYLEDONS,    <         "       perigynous,  3 

I        "        epigynous,  4 

*  The  Cotyledons  are  the  thick  parts  of  the  seed  ;  an  apple  seed,  an  orange 
seed,  or  a  bean,  may  be  easily  split  into  two  parts  ;  these  are  the  cotyledons  ; 
nee  and  wheat  cannot  be  thus  split,  they  have  but  one  cotyledon. 

Many  plants  cannot  be  referred  to  any  natural  families — Two  natural  meth- 
ods to  be  considered — What  are  the  characters  employed  in  Jussieu's  method? 
— How  is  the  structure  of  the  seed  considered  ? — How  the  insertion  of  the 
stamens  ? — How  the  corolla  ? — How  the  anthers  ? — Give  a  synopsis  of  Jussieu's 
method. 

15 


170  CLASSIFICATION. 

f  Stamens  epigynous,  5 

apetalous.  "       perigynous,  6 

(         «        hypogynous,  7 

Corolla  hypogynous,  8 

"     perigynous,  9 

monopetalous.     }  f  ^^f.1^  IQ 

I  combined, 

l  anthers  , , 
L  distinct, 

i  Stamens  epigynous,  12 

polypetalous.  "        hypogynous,  13 

(        "       perigynous,  14 

„  diclinious,  15 

These  classes  are  divided  into  100  orders  ;*  but  they  are 
obscure  and  indefinite  in  many  particulars. 

The  dicotyledons  include  the  Cryptogamous  plants  of  Lin- 
naeus. The  monocotyledons  consist  of  three  classes ;  grasses, 
palms,  and  liliaceous  plants.  The  dicotyledons^  form  the  11  re- 
maining classes.  There  are  some  genera  which  appear  so 
ambiguous  in  their  character,  as  to  render  it  doubtful  where 
they  should  be  placed. 

In  the  three  methods  of  classification  which  we  have  now 
examined,  the  most  important  characters  of  the  plant  have  been 
presented,  under  circumstances  calculated  to  give  you  more 
clear-ideas  of  them,  than  could  have  been  obtained  from  a  con- 
sideration of  any  one  method,  alone. 

Tournefort  makes  you  acquainted  with  the  different  appear- 
ances of  the  corolla. 

Linnaeus,  of  the  stamens  and  pistils. 
Jussieu,  of  the  cotyledons  and  insertions  of  the  stamens. 
The  method  of  Tournefort  cannot  be  relied  on,  because  the 
forms  of  corollas  vary  into  each  other;  that  of  Jussieu,  con- 
sidered as  a  study  in  itself,  is  much  too  abstract ;  the  number  of 
cotyledons,  generally  speaking,  is  an  excellent  character,  but 
you  cannot  in  the  beginning  appreciate  its  value ;  and  as  to  in- 
sertion, botanists  themselves  are  sometimes  embarrassed  to  de- 
cide respecting  it.  This  method,  although  much  admired,  has 
been  little  used ;  on  the  contrary,  the  method  of  Linnaeus  has 
been  for  half  a  century  the  foundation  of  all  teaching.  The 

*  See  Part  I,  page  39. 

t  The  dicotyledonous  division  includes  also  the  Polycotyledons,  or  a  few 
plants  with  more  than  two  cotyledons. 

How  many  of  Jussieu's  orders  ?— Acotyledons— Monocotyledons— Dicotyle- 
dons— The  three  methods  of  classification  considered,  present  the  most  impor- 
tant characters  of  the  plants  under  different  points  of  view — Comparison  of 
these  methods. 


METHOD  OF  JUSSIEU.  171 

new  species  discovered  have  been  arranged  according  to  its 
principles  of  classification,  and  most  catalogues  of  plants,  and 
floras,*  have  taken  this  method  for  their  guide. 

The  characters  used  in  this  system  are  very  apparent ;  and 
as  it  refers  to  the  number  of  parts,  rather  than  to  their  forms 
or  insertion,  it  offers  to  the  mind  something  positive,  which  is 
not  found  either  in  the  method  of  Tournefort,  or  that  of  Jussieu. 
Between  a  corolla,  bell  form  or  funnel  form,  there  are  many 
intermediate  forms,  which  may  be  as  much  like  one,  as  the 
other.  The  insertions  over  the  germ,  or  under  the  germ,  are 
distinct,- but  between  them,  is  the  insertion  around  the  germ, 
which  sometimes  blends  with  one,  sometimes  with  the  other. 
But  between  one  or  two  stamens,  or  one  or  two  pistils,  there  is 
no  intermediate  step,  or  gradual  blending  of  distinctions,  which 
leaves  you  in  doubt  whether  the  case  before  you  belongs  to  the 
one,  or  the  other. 

The  natural  orders  of  Linnseus  are  58  ;  they  are  not  found- 
ed upon  any  one  principle,  but  upon  general  marks  of  resem- 
blance. This  great  man  did  not  view  his  Natural  Orders  as 
approaching  to  a  perfect  classification ;  he  modestly  termed 
them  "Fragments  of  a  natural  method."  As  every  thing  left 
by  him  on  the  subject  of  botany  seems  deserving  of  considera- 
tion, his  Natural  Orders  are  preserved  as  a  relic,  which  it 
would  be  almost  sacrilege  to  destroy  :  there  is  in  them  more  of 
simplicity  than  in  those  of  Jussieu,  and  they  may  be  better  un- 
derstood by  the  young  student. 

Linnaeus,  in  his  "  Philosophy  of  Botany,"  has  established 
three  kinds  of  characters  to  be  used  in  descriptions  of  plants. 

1st.  Factitious  (or  made).  That  which  is,  by  agreement, 
taken  as  a  mark  of  distinction :  thus  the  number  of  stamens 
and  pistils  is  fixed  upon  for  distinguishing  some  of  the  classes 
and  orders.  Although  nature  has  formed  these  organs,  the 
arrangement  of  plants  by  their  means,  is  an  invention  of  man, 
or  artificial. 

2d.  Essential  Character.  That  which  forms  a  particular 
character  of  one  genus,  and  distinguishes  it  from  all  other 
genera. 

3d.  Natural  Character.  This  is  difficult  to  define,  though 
it  is  that  which  is  understood  by  all ;  it  is  the  general  aspect 
and  appearance  of  the  plant  which  enables  all  persons  to 

*  The  term  flora  is  often  used  for  the  title  of  a  book  describing  plants.  The 
ancient  heathens  imagined  a  goddess  called  Flora,  who,  they  thought,  presided 
over  flowers. 

System  of  Linneeus  offers  something  positive — Natural  orders  of  Linnaeus — 
Three  kinds  of  characters  to  be  used  in  descriptions  of  plants — Factitious 
character— Essential  character — Natural. 


172  CLASSIFICATION. 

make  a  kind  of  arrangement  of  plants  in  their  own  minds, 
although  they  would  find  it  very  difficult  to  convey  their  ideas 
of  classification  to  others. 

It  is  by  their  natural  characters,  that  persons  who  have 
never,  perhaps,  heard  of  such  a  science  as  zoology  or  the  clas- 
sification of  animals,  are  enabled  to  distinguish  ferocious  beasts 
from  domestic  and  gentle  animals ;  they  see  a  sheep  or  cow 
without  any  terror,  although  that  individual  one  they  may 
never  have  seen  before  ;  for  nature  teaches  them  to  consider 
that,  as  resembling  other  sheep  and  cows,  which  they  know  to 
be  inoffensive. 

This  natural  character  teaches  savages  to  distinguish  among 
the  many  plants  of  the  forest,  those  which  may  administer  to 
their  wants  and  those  which  would  be  injurious. 

Even  the  lower  grades  of  animals  have  this  faculty  of  se- 
lecting by  natural  characters,  nutritious  substances,  and  avoid- 
ing noxious  ones ;  thus  we  see  the  apparently  unconscious 
brutes  luxuriating  in  the  rich  pastures  prepared  for  them  by  a 
benevolent  Creator,  and  cautiously  passing  by  the  poisonous 
weed,  directed  by  the  curious  instinct  given  them  by  this  same 
Almighty  Benefactor. 


LECTURE   XXI. 

Characters  used  in  clatsifaation. 

A  natural  family  is  composed  of  several  genera  of  plants 
which  have  some  common  marks  of  resemblance,  and  its  name 
is  usually  founded  upon  this  general  character;  as  Labiate 
and  Cruciform,  which  are  derived  from  the  form  of  the  co- 
rollas ;  Umbellate  and  Corymbiferous,  from  the  inflorescence  ; 
Leguminous  from  the  nature  of  the  fruit. 

Families  resemble  artificial  orders  in  being  composed  of 
genera,  but  the  principles  on  which  the  genera  are  brought 
together,  differ  widely  in  the  two  cases. 

In  natural  families,  the  classification  is  such  as  persons  who 
have  never  studied  botany,  might  make  ;  thus,  dill,  fennel, 
caraway,  &c.  belong  to  the  Umbellate  family,  on  account  of 
the  form  in  which  the  little  stalks,  bearing  the  flower,  and 
afterwards  the  seed,  branch  out  from  one  common  centre,  like 
the  sticks  of  an  umbrella  ;  this  general  resemblance  is  observ- 
ed by  all,  and  it  seems  very  natyral  to  class  such  plants  to- 
gether. 

Animals  capable  of  discerning  these  natural  characters — Families  of  plants 
— In  what  respect  do  families  resemble  artificial  orders  ?  How  do  they  differ  ? 
— Persons  might  form  natural  families  without  a  knowledge  of  botany  > 


CHARACTERS    USED  IN  CLASSIFICATION.  173 

But  in  the  artificial  orders,  genera  which  may  be  very  un- 
like in  other  respects,  are  brought  together,  from  the  single 
circumstance  of  their  having  the  same  number  of  stamens 
and  pistils.  Thus,  in  the  first  order  of  the  8th  class  we  have 
the  tulip  and  the  bulrush,  the  lily  of  the  valley  and  the  sweet 
flag.  In  the  second  order  of  the  5th  class  we  have  the  beet 
and  the  elm.  You  will  at  once  perceive  the  striking  disparity 
between  these  plants,  and  that  an  arrangement,  which  thus 
brings  them  together,  is  properly  called  an  artificial  method. 

Many  families  of  plants  possess  a  marked  resemblance  in 
form  and  qualities,  and  appear  evidently  as  distinct  tribes.  If 
the  whole  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  could  thus  be  distributed 
into  natural  classes,  the  study  of  botany  would  be  much  sim- 
plified ;  but  it  has  already  been  remarked  that  there  are  many 
plants  which  cannot  be  thus  arranged,  and  no  principle  has  yet 
been  discovered  for  systematic  arrangement  which  bears  any 
comparison  to  the  Artificial  System.  This  system  is  compar- 
ed to  a  dictionary  ;  though  by  its  use  we  do  not  at  first  find 
the  word  for  which  we  seek,  and  then  learn  its  definition,  as 
we  do  in  dictionaries  of  terms  ;  but  we  first  learn  some  of  the 
characters  of  a  plant,  and  by  these  as  our  guide,  we  proceed 
to  find  the  name.  We  are  not  however  to  rest  after  finding 
the  botanical  name  ;  but  having  ascertained  this,  we  can  easily 
find  to  what  natural  family  a  plant  belongs,  and  thus  ascertain 
its  habits,  medicinal  use,  and  other  important  particulars.  Th$ 
natural  method  may  then  be  considered  as  the  grammar  of 
botany  ;  between  this  and  the  artificial  systenij  the  same  rela- 
tion exists,  as  between  the  grammar  and  dictionary  of  a  lan- 
guage ;  both  are  necessary  to  science. 

As  the  subject  of  classification  is  so  important  to  a  knowledge 
of  botanical  science,  we  will  now  consider  the  general  princi- 
ples on  which  it  depends. 

Rules. 

1st.  All  botanical  classification  results  from  an  examination 
and  comparison  of  plants. 

2d.  Every  organic  distinction  which  establishes  between  indi- 
viduals any  resemblance,  or  any  difference,  is  a  character ;  that 
is,  a  sign,  by  which  they  may  be  known  and  distinguished. 

3d.  The  presence  of  an  organ,  its  different  modification  and 
its  absence,  are  so  many  characters. 

4th.  The  presence  of  an  organ  furnishes  positive  characters, 
its  absence  negative  characters. 

Genera  in  the  artificial  orders  brought  together  by  having  the  same  number 
of  stamens  and  pistils — Artificial  system  of  arrangement  compared  to  a  dic- 
tionary— First  learn  the  characters,  then  the  name — The  natural  method  con- 
sidered as  the  grammar  of  botany — Mention  the  first  four  rules  which  are 
given  for  classification. 

15* 


174  CLASSIFICATION. 

Positive  characters  offering  means  of  comparison,  shew  the 
resemblances  and  differences  which  exist  between  individuals ; 
those  plants  in  which  these  characters  present  but  slight  differ- 
ences, should  be  collected  in  groups;  those  in  which  these 
characters  differ  more  sensibly,  should  be  separated ;  here  we 
follow  strictly  the  laws  of  the  mind.  But  negative  characters, 
as  they  allow  no  comparison,  can  only  be  employed  to  separate 
individuals,  and  never  to  bring  them  together. 

When  we  say  that  plants  have  seeds  with  one  or  two  cotyle- 
dons ;  that  they  have  monopetalous  or  polypetalous  flowers, 
and  are  provided  with  stamens  and  pistils,  we  point  out  particu- 
lars, where  visible  and  striking  resemblances  may  be  observ- 
ed ;  these  characters,  then,  are  positive,  since  they  are  founded 
on  something  real. 

When  we  say  that  some  plants  are  destitute  of  cotyledon, 
corolla,  stamens  or  pistils,  we  do  not  establish  any  real  basis 
for  the  foundation  of  a  comparison.  If  we  wish  to  separate 
plants  with  monopetalous  corollas,  from  such  as  have  polypeta- 
lous corollas,  this  single  character  establishes  at  once,  the 
difference  which  exists  between  the  two  groups,  and  the  resem- 
blance, which  exists  between  the  individuals  of  each  group. 
Thus  positive  characters  possess  a  great  advantage  over  nega- 
tive ones ;  the  latter  should  never  be  employed  when  the  former 
can  be  used ;  and  in  proportion,  as  positive  characters  can  be 
substituted  for  negative,  the  science  of  botany  will  be  per- 
fected. 

Positive  characters  can  only  be  founded  upon  evident  facts, 
and  never  upon  a  presumption  of  the  existence  of  facts,  derived 
from  analogy.  For  it  is  contrary  to  true  philosophy,  to  suffer 
hypothetical  reasoning  to  usurp  the  place  of  direct  observation 
of  facts. 

5th.  Positive  characters  are  constant  or  inconstant.  All 
seeds  produced  by  plants  of  the  same  species  have  the  same 
structure ;  all  plants  which  grow  from  these  seeds,  produce 
other  seeds,  similar  to  those  from  which  they  have  had  their 
origin :  of  course  the  characters  derived  from  the  structure 
of  these  seeds  are  constant.  But  among  these  plants  some  are 
large  and  others  small  ;  some  may  have  white  corollas,  some, 
red,  or  blue  ;  some  are  more  fragrant  than  others ;  of  course, 
size,  colour  and  odour  offer  inconstant  characters. 

6th.  All  real  science  in  botany  must  rest  upon  constant  char- 
acters; therefore,  these  characters  are  much  more  important 
than  the  others. 

Positive  and  negative  characters — Give  illustrations  of  these  characters,  with 
their  uses — Advantage  of  positive  characters  over  negative — Founded  only 
upon  evident  facts— What  is  the  fifth  rule  ?— The  sixth  F 


CHARACTERS  USED  IN  CLASSIFICATION.  175 

7th.  Constant  characters  may  be  isolated  or  coexistent.  The 
petals  of  the  RANUNCULUS  acris  (butter-cup)  have  a  nectary  in 
the  form  of  a  scale  ;  this  character,  although  constant,  is  iso- 
lated, for  it  is  not  necessarily  connected  with  any  other  char- 
acteristic trait.  The  calyx  of  the  campanula  rotundifolia^ 
(blue-bell,)  adheres  to  the  germ ;  the  germ  must  of  necessity 
be  simple,  or  without  divisions,  and  the  corolla  and  stamens 
attached  to  the  interior  of  the  calyx.  The  character  of  the 
adherence  of  the  calyx  to  the  germ,  brings  in  its  train  several 
other  characteristics  ;  it  is  then  coexistent;  and  is  more  impor- 
tant than  the  isolated  character. 

8th.  Two  orders  of  characters  are  derived  from  the  two  great 
divisions  of  vegetable  organs  ;  those  of  vegetation  and  repro- 
duction. The  characters  of  vegetation  are  few,  and  mostly 
isolated  •  the  characters  of  reproduction  are  numerous  and  often 
coexistent ;  one  character  serving  as  an  index  to  many  others. 

It  is  seldom  that  plants  which  resemble  each  other  in  their 
characters  of  reproduction,  differ  much  in  their  characters  of 
vegetation.  For  example,  all  plants  which  have  four  didyna- 
mous*  stamens,  attached -to  a  mo uopetalous  labiate  corolla,  and 
four  seeds  lying  uncovered  in  a  monophyllous  calyx,  have  an 
angular  stem  and  opposite  leaves.  On  the  contrary  it  frequent- 
ly happens,  that  plants  which  resemble  each  other  by  the 
characters  of  vegetation,  differ  by  those  of  fructification. 
Labiate  and  caryophyllous  plants  agree  in  having  their  leaves 
opposite,  and  yet  there  is  no  resemblance  in  their  flowers. 
This  consideration  alone,  would  seem  sufficient  for  establishing 
the  superior  importance  of  the  characters  of  reproduction 
over  those  of  vegetation.  The  seed  unites  in  itself  the  char- 
acters both  of  reproduction  and  vegetation.  The  embryo  is 
the  commencement  of  the  new  plant,  and  it  offers  us  the  first 
characters  of  vegetation ;  but  its  situation  in  the  fruit,  the 
number,  form  and  consistence  of  its  envelope,  are  characters 
which  belong  to  fructification. 

As  far  as  possible,  in  separating  or  bringing  together  plants, 
we  should  make  use  of  prominent  characters  which  the  eye 
can  see,  without  the  help  of  the  microscope  ;  but  if  experience 
teaches  us  that  the  characters  most  constant  and  proper  for  the 
explanation  of  physiological  phenomena  can  only  be  discover- 
ed by  such  aid,  it  is  necessary  to  resort  to  this  instrument,  in 
order  to  establish  the  natural  relations  of  plants.f 

*  That  is,  two  long  and  two  short  stamens. 

t  The  foregoing  rules  and  observations  respecting  characters  for  classifica- 
tion, are  translated  from  Mirbel's  "  Elemens  de  Botanique." 

The  seventh  ? — The  eighth  ? — Characters  of  reproduction  more  important 
than  those  of  vegetation — In  what  cases  should  we  make  use  of  characters 
invisible  to  the  naked  eye? 


176  CLASSIFICATION. 

Having  considered  the  meaning  of  individual,  species,  genus 
&Di<\fanu/y,  and  of  the  characteristics  by  which  these  are  group- 
ed together,  let  us  take  a  general  view  of  this  subject.' 

It  is  evident  by  the  formation  of  species,  genera  and  families, 
that  every  species  should  offer  the  essential  characters  of  the 
family  and  genus  to  which  it  belongs ;  while  the  marks  which 
distinguish  this  species  from  another  species  of  its  genus,  will 
be  such  as  do  not  belong  to  the  whole  genus  or  family.  The 
different  genera  in  families  are  also  distinguished  by  characters 
which  do  not  belong  to  the  whole  family;  every  individual, 
then  will  possess  its  specific  character,  its  generic  character, 
,and  its  family  character. 

The  specific  character  is  less  important  than  the  generic,  as 
it  is  mostly  founded  on  the  characters  of  the  organs  of  vegeta- 
tion, which  we  have  seen  are  isolated  and  less  important  than 
the  coexistent  characters.  We  often  find  in  the  analysis  of 
plants,  a  great  difficulty  in  determining  their  species,  from  the 
want  of  more  definite  marks  of  distinction. 

Generic  characters  are  mostly  of  the  coexistent  kind,  and 
are  more  valuable  than  the  specific  characters.  The  distinc- 
tions of  genera  are  usually  much  more  apparent  than  those  of 
species  ;  as  a  rose  can  be  more  easily  distinguished  Jrom  a  pink, 
than  one  species  of  rose  from  another  species.  Families  are 
grouped  together  by  marks  of  resemblance  found  in  genera. 
These  family  characters  are  of  all  the  most  important. 

In  the  artificial  classes  and  orders  we  depend  on  what  we 
have  before  termed  factitious  characters. 

In  species,  genera  and  families,  the  essential  characters  are 
also  natural  characters. 


LECTURE   XXII. 

*         Natural  Families. 

We  will  now  consider  the  vegetable  kingdom  as  divided  into 
natural  families.  We  first  find  the  general  division,  Acotyle- 
donous  plants  ;  these  are  the  lowest  in  the  scale  of  vegetable 
life,  resembling,  in  many  respects,  the  lower  orders  of  animals ; 
like  them,  simple  and  almost  homogeneous  in  structure,  and 
chiefly  composed  of  cellular  texture. 

General  view  of  the  subject  of  classification — Which  is  the  more  important, 
the  specific  or  generic  character?— Why  are  generic  characters  most  valu- 
able ?  -  How  are  families  grouped  together  ? — Artificial  classes  and  orders — 
First  general  division  of  plants. 


NATURAL  FAMILIES.  177 

Acotyledons.* 
CLASS  1. 

Embryo  destitute  of  cotyledons,  and  a  separate  albumen. 

These  are  the  plants  which  are  contained  in  the  class  Cryp- 
togamia  of  the  artificial  system. 

Fungi,  or  mushrooms ;  these  are  either  parasitical,  or  spring 
from  the  ground  naked  or  enclosed  in  a  volva.  The  substance 
of  mushrooms  is,  in  some  species,  like  cork  or  leather  ;  in  oth- 
ers, soft,  fleshy  and  juicy.  They  are  round  or  flat ;  some  have 
a  head  called  a  pileus  (signifying  hat).  They  have  neither 
leaves  or  flowers.  Instead  of  anthers  they  have  a  Scattered, 
external  or  internal  powder.  Instead  of  pistils  they  have  or- 
gans, which  resemble  thin  plates,  wrinkles,  pores,  tubes,  &c. 
In  these  organs,  exists  a  substance  analogous  to  seeds,  which 
germinates  and  reproduces  the  species.  The  different  species 
of  fungi  are  known  by  the  common  names  of  toad-stool,  puff- 
ball,  &c. 

Mosses,  instead  of  anthers,  have  collections  of  tubes  which 
evolve  a  substance  analogous  to  pollen.  The  pistillate  flowers 
are  collections  of  many  in  one  group  ;  their  germ,  instead  of  a 
corolla,  is  covered  wiflh  a  membrane  called  a  calyptra  (veil), 
whose  summit  admits  the  polJen.  The  fruit  is  a  capsule,  open- 
ing by  a  lid,  having  a  margin  either  naked  or  fringed,  with  a 
certain  number  of  teeth  either  in  a  single  or  double  row.  The 
seeds  of  mosses  are  very  minute.  The  mosses  are  herbaceous, 
leafy  and  mostly  branched  ;  their  roots  are  fibrous  ;  some  are 
annual,  others  perennial. 

Ferns  exhibit  no  other  fructification  than  capsules  which 
grow  on  the  back  or  edges  of  leaves.  The  leaves  are  called 
fronds;  the  stems  are  called  stipes.  Lichens, sea-weeds,  &c. 
which  belong  to  this  class,  will  be  considered  under  the  artifi- 
cial class,  Cryptogamia. 

The  second  grand  division  of  the  vegetable  kindom  contains 
the  2d,  3d,  and  4th  classes  of  Jussieu's  method. 

Monocotyledons. 

CLASS  2. 

Stamens  hypogynous  (below  the  germ).  Embryo  with  one 
cotyledon.  The  characters  of  this  class  are  ;  stamens  inferior, 
calyx  inferior  when  present ;  stamens  seldom  indefinite ;  leave? 
mostly  alternate  and  sheathing. 

*  See  Jussieu's  classes,  page  169. 

Characters  of  class  1st — Fungi — Mosses — Ferns — Second  grand  division 
—Characters  of  class  2d. 


178  CLASSIFICATION. 

This  class  contains  more  than  twenty  families.  Aroides 
constitute  a  family,  of  which  the  genus  arum  (wild  turnip)  is 
an  important  member,  and  from  which  the  name  is  derived ; 
aides,  is  derived  from  the  Greek,  and  signifies  resemblance ; 
thus  aroides  denotes  plants  resembling  arum.  This  family 
have  that  kind  of  inflorescence  called  a  spadix,  surrounded  by 
that  form  of  calyx  called  a  spatha.  Their  leaves  are  sheath- 
ing, alternate,  and  radical. 

Gramma,  or  grasses,  constitute  an  important  family ;  they 
have  generally  three  stamens  and  one  germ.  The  embryo  is 
small  and  attached  to  a  farinaceous  albumen.  In  germinating, 
the  cotyledon  remains  attached  to  the  albumen  and  nourishes 
the  plume.*  The  roots  are  fibrous,  and  capillary.  The  culms 
are  cylindrical ;  and  either  hollow,  or  pithy.  The  flower  and 
calyx  are  scales,  called  glumes.  The  chaffy  fower,  single 
seed,  mealy  albumen,  situation  of  tlie  embryo,  and  method  of 
germination  distinguish,  in  a  peculiar  manner,  this  family. 

CLASS  3. 

Stamens  perigynous  (around  the  germ).  Fruit  with  three 
cells.  Embryo  small,  with  a  large  albumen. 

Palms.  In  this  class  we  find  the  family  of  the  palms 
(Palmce),  which  have  a  corolla  deeply  parted  into  6  segments, 
the  3  outer  ones  being  the  smallest.  The  stamens  and  pistils 
are  on  separate  plants ;  the  number  of  stamens  is  usually  6 ; 
the  filaments  are  often  united  at  their  base.  The  germ  is  su- 
perior, or  above  the  calyx.  The  fruit  is  a  berry  or  fibrous 
drupe,  the  albumen  of  which  is  at  first  tender  and  eatable,  and 
at  last  becomes  hard. 

The  stems  of  palms  are  usually  undivided,  lofty,  and  round: 
they  are  not  composed  of  concentric  circles,  being  endogenous, 
or  growing  internally  ;  they  are  scaly  from  the  remains  of  the 
indurated  foot  stalks  of  leaves ;  in  treating  of  endogenous  stems 
this  peculiarity  was  observed.  The  leaves  of  palms  appear  in 
a  terminal  tuft,  alternate  and  sheathing. 

*  See  Fig.  90. 

Aroides — Gramina— Characters  of  class  3d — Palms. 


NATURAL  FAMILIES. 

Fig.  96. 


179 


96    rep. 
young 


Fig. 

resents  a 
palm  tree  (Cha- 
marops  humilis); 
at  a  is  the  fibrous 
root ;  b  c,  repre- 
sents the  oldest 
part  of  the  stipe, 
shewing  by  the 
lines  and  dots  the 
place  of  insertion 
of  the  first  leaves; 
c  b,  represents  the 
upper  part  of  the 
stipe,  still  covered 
with  the  sheathing 
bases  of  the  peti- 
oles ;  d  represents 
the  crowning,  ter- 
minal leaves — 
these  are  petioled, 
fan-shaped,  plait- 
ed when  young ; . 
the  petioles  are 
armed  with  prick- 
les. Palms  live  to 
a  great  age ;  they 
are  the  product  of  tropical  regions,  and  afford  valuable  food. 

Liliaceous  plants  (Liliaca),  consist  of  six  petals,  spreading 
gradually  from  the  base,  and  exhibiting  a  kind  of  bell-form  ap- 
pearance, but  differing  from  the  bell-form  flowers  in  being  po- 
lypetalous.  The  number  of  stamens  in  these  plants  is  generally 
6,  sometimes  but  3 ;  they  are  usually  alternate  with  the  petals. 
The  germ  of  the  liliaceous  plants  is  always  of  a  triangular 
form,  and  contains  3  cells ;  the  roots  are  mostly  bulbous.  The 
lily  has  a  scaly  bulb  ;  the  tulip  has  a  root,  which  seems  almost 
solid  and  tuberous. 

The  calyx  is  mostly  wanting  in  the  liliaceous  plants,  the 
stems  are  simple,  without  branches,  the  leaves  entire,  and  ner- 
ved. To  this  family  belong  the  tulip,  lily,  crown-imperial, 
dog-tooth  violet,  &c.  Plants  of  this  natural  family  usually  be- 
long to  the  artificial  class  Hexandria ;  the  crocus,  having  three 
stamens,  belongs  to  the  class  Triandria. 

Asparagi.     We  find  here,  closely  connected  with  the  Lilia- 


Describe  Fig.  96— Liliaceous  plants— Asparagi. 


180  CLASSIFICATION. 

ceous  plants,  some  other  families,  among  which  is  the  asparagi, 
from  asparagus,  one  of  its  most  important  genera.  The  family 
asparagi,  is  distinguished  by  monopetalous  corollas,  divided  in- 
to  6  segments.  The  fruit  is  mostly  pulpy  and  contains  3  cells. 
This  family  contains  the  genus  Convallaria  (lily  of  the  valley), 
Trillium,  <fyc. 

Narcissi.  The  family  Narcissi  contains  the  genus  Narcis- 
sus, Amaryllis,  Hypoxis,  Pontederia,  <Sfc.  Their  6  stamens 
are  inserted  into  the  tube  of  the  corolla.  Their  roots  are 
mostly  bulbous. 

Irides.  This  family  is  so  named  from  Iris,  one  of  the  most 
important  genera.  The  leaves  in  this  family  are  alternate, 
sheathing,  and  sword-shaped  (ensiform).  Tfce  flowers  are 
often  attended  by  sheaths  of  two  valves.  We  find  here  the 
Ixia  and  Sysirinchium. 

CLASS  4. 

Stamens  cpigynous  (above  the  germ).  OBCIIIS  PLANTS  (Or- 
chides).  This  family  is  distinguished  by  having,  in  place  of 
stamens,  glutinous  masses  of  pollen,  sometimes  sessile,  and 
sometimes  supported  by  short  filaments.  The  root  has  usually 
two  knobs.*  In  this  family  are  the  ORCHIS  genus,  from  which 
it  takes  its  name  ;  the  genus  Cypripedium,  or  lady's  slipper, 
which  takes  its  name  from  its  large  nectary  resembling  a  shoe ; 
the  Cymbidium,  or  blue  eyed  grass,  &c. 

Dicotyledons. 

The  third  general  division  of  the  vegetable  tribes  includes 
the  last  eleven  classes  of  Jussieu's  method. 

CLASS  5. 

Apetalous ;  stamens  epigynous,  (above  the  germ).  The 
characters  of  this  class  are  a  calyx  superior,  and  of  one  leaf; 
corolla  wanting.  It  contains  but  one  family,  Aristolochia. 

CLASS  6. 

Apetalous ;  stamens  perigynous  (around  the  germ). 

We  have  in  this  class,  the  family  PROTEJS  ;  these  flowers, 
being  variable  in  their  characteristics,  received  their  name  from 
Proteus,  a  'fabulous  deity,  remarkable  for  his  transformations. 
We  find  here  the  family  Lauri,  which  contains  the  genus 
LAURUS.  The  family  Polygonece  is  chiefly  important  as  con- 
taining the  genus  Polygonum ;  the  name  of  this  genus  is  deri- 

*  See  Fig.  90,  c. 

Narcissi — Irides — Characteristics  of  Class  4th — Families  most  distinguished 
in  this  class— Third  general  division— Characters  of  class  5th,  &c.— Of  class 
6th,  &c. 


NATURAL  FAMILIES.  181 

ved  from  the  Greek  polus,  many,  added  to  gonu,  knot,  signify- 
ing  many  knots,  in  allusion  to  its  knotted  stems. 

CLASS  7. 

Apetalous,  stamens  hypogynous  (beneath  the  germ). 

The  most  important  characters  of  this  class  are  a  calyx  in- 
ferior ;  scarcely  any  corolla,  though  some  have  scales  resem- 
bling petals,  which  bear,  the  stamens  and  are  alternate  with 
them.  In  this  class  we  find  the  family  Amaranthi,  deriving 
its  name  from  the  genus  amaranthus,  which  has  its  flowers 
growing  in  a  spike. 

CLASS  8. 

Corollas  monopctalous,  hypogynous  (below  the  germ). 

The  calyx  is  monophyllous  ;  corolla  regular  or  irregular, 
bearing  the  stamens,  which  generally  alternate  with  its  seg- 
ments, when  of  equal  number  :  germ  superior. 

The  labiate  flowers  (Labiata),  are  found  here  ;  they  are 
monopetalous,  consisting  of  one  piece;  they. are  irregular  in 
their  outline  and  appearance.  The  term  Labiate  is  derived 
from  the  Latin  word  labia,  lips  ;  the  flower  appearing  to  be 
divided  at  the  top  into  two  parts,  resembling  the  lips  of  an  ani- 
mal. This  natural  family  is  subdivided  into  ringent  or  gaping, 
where  the  entrance  into  the  corolla  is  open  ;  and  personate  or 
masked,  where  the  corolla  seems  closed  by  a  prominent  throat 
or  palate. 

Botanists  have  made  some  confusion  in  the  use  of  these  terms. 
Linnaeus  called  them  all  ringent,  and  then  subdivided  them  into 
labiate,  having  lips  ;  and  personate,  closed  lips  :  most  other 
botanists,  following  him,  have  made  the  same  division.  You 
can  easily  see,  that  to  take  for  a  general  term,  a  word  which 
signifies  having  a  gaping  mouth  or  lips,  and  then  to  separate 
the  class  thus  formed  into  those  which  have  lips,  and  those 
which  have  lips  closed,  is  inconsistent.  Thus  instead  of  follow- 
ing a  rule  with  regard  to  definitions,  that  as  we  proceed  in 
more  minute  divisions,  each  branch  is  to  contain  all  the  quali- 
ties of  the  whole,  or  of  the  generic  term,  and  some  property 
added  to  mark  a  specific  difference  ;  in  this  case,  the  specific 
term  labiate  has  a  more  general  signification  than  the  generic 
term  ringent. 

We  shall  consider  Labiate  as  the  general  term,  and  divide 
this  tribe  of  plants  into  ringent,  those  that  have  lips  gaping ; 
and  personate,  such  as  have  the  lips  closed  or  muffled.* 

*  See  Eaton's  Botanical  Grammar,  for  the  same  distinction ;  also  Thornton's 
Botany. 

Characters  of  class  7th— Amaranthi— Of  class  8th— Family  Labitse— Two 
divisions,  ringent  and  personate. 

16 


182  CLASSIFICATION. 

The  labiate  flowers  have  mostly  four  stamens  of  unequal 
length,  standing  in  pairs,  beneath  an  arch  in  the  upper  lip  of 
the  corolla.  On  account  of  this  circumstance,  they  are  ranked 
in  the  class  Didynamia. 

A  few  of  the  labiate  plants  have  but  two  stamens,  and  on 
that  account,  are  placed  in  the  class  Diandria,  as  the  sage  and 
mountain  mint  (Monarda).  Here  again  the  artificial  system 
separates  a  tribe  which  nature  has  made  strikingly  similar. 
Those  of  the  labiate  flowers  which  have  but  two  stamens,  ex- 
hibit  two  other  imperfect  ones  ;  as  if  it  had  been  the  original 
1  design  of  nature  to  have  given  them  four  stamens.  Linnaeus 
remarks  that  the  insects  which  seem  most  fond  of  frequenting 
these  species,  have  also  but  two  wings ;  but  that  by -a  careful 
observation,  the  rudiments  of  two  other  wings  may  be  found, 
concealed  under  a  little  membrane.  Who  shall  explain  these 
secret  sympathies  of  nature  1  and  yet  we  observe  them  on 
every  side ! 

If  you  examine  a  labiate  flower,  as  balm  or  catmint,  you  will 
see  that  the  arched  upper  lip  of  the  petals  covers  the  stamens, 
and  that  the  lower  lip  hangs  down,  so  that  you  can  see  the  in- 
side  of  the  corolla.  If  you  pull  out  the  corolla  you  will  take 
the  stamens  along  with  it,  the  filaments  being  attached  to  it,  as 
they  usually  are  to  monopetalous  corollas.  The  corolla  has  a 
circular  opening  at  the  bottom,  through  which  the  pistil  grew 
from  the  receptacle. 

•  The  labiate  plants  inhabit  hills,  and  plains  exposed  to  the 
sun.  The  aroma  which  escapes  from  their  flowers,  denotes 
their  stimulating  medicinal  properties.  Their  action  upon  the 
animal  economy  differs  according  to  the  quantity  of  essential 
oil  and  of  bitter  principle  which  they  contain ;  when  the  former 
prevails  (as  in  mint),  they  are  aromatic  and  stimulating  ;  when 
the  bitter  principle  is  in  excess  (as  in  germander,  teucrium), 
they  act  as  tonics  and  strengthen  the  digestive  organs. 

The  ringent  flowers  generally  grow  in  whorls  or  circles,  and 
at  the  upper  part  of  an  angular  stem,  the  leaves  standing  oppo- 
site. These  plants  are  never  poisonous.  Among  them  we 
find  many  aromatic  plants,  the  peppermint,  lavender,  savory, 
marjorum,  thyme,  &c. ;  also  many  herbs  which  are  useful  in 
sickness,  as  pennyroyal,  catmint,  horehound,  &c. ;  the  scullcap 
(Scutellaria),  which  has  been  said  to  be  a  remedy  for  the  hy- 
drophobia, the  modest  Isanthus  (blue  gentian),  and  a  little7 
flower  of  a  most  beautiful  blue  colour  called  Truhostcma  (blue 
curls). 

The  personate  division  affords  some  very  splendid  flowers, 

Describe  the  labiate  flowers — Medicinal  properties  of  the  labiate  plants — 
Plants  with  ringent  flowers — Personate  flowers. 


NATURAL  FAMILIES.  1&3 

as  the  Painted-cup  (Bartsia),  the  beautiful  Gerardia,  American 
fox-glove,  and  the  magnificent  Bignonia  (Trumpet  flower). 
The  plants  of  this  family  seem  to  be  somewhat  allied  to  those 
of  the  class  Pentandria ;  in  many  of  these,  as  in  the  snapdragon 
(Antirrhinum),  the  Penstemon,  ,&c.,  there  exist  the  rudiments 
of  a  fifth  stamen,  in  accordance  with  the  five  divisions  of  the 
calyx  and  corolla.  Some  plants  of  this  division  of  the  Labiate 
family  are  poisonous,  as  the  Foxglove  and  Snapdragon.  The 
pericarp  of  the  Labiate  plants  is  of  the  genus  Cenobion.* 

CLASS  9. 

Corolla  monopetalous,  perigynous  (around  the  germ).  The. 
calyx  is  of  one  leaf,  and  supports  the  corolla. 

In  this  class  we  meet  with  the  family  Campanulas  ;  its 
principal  genus  is  CAMPANULA,  a  term  derived  from  the  Latin, 
signifying  a  little  bell.  The  bell-form  corollas  have  mostly  a 
calyx  above  the  germ  ;  regular  corolla,  inserted  into  the  top 
of  the  calyx  ;  stamens  5,  inserted  into  the  same  part,  under 
the  corolla,  alternating  with  its  divisions  ;  style  one  ;  stigma 
from  three  to  five  cleft  ;  capsule  usually  3  celled,  bursting 
laterally. 

CLASS  10. 

Corolla  montipetafous,  epigynous  (above  the  germ).  Anthers 
united. 

This  class  contains  several  families  which  may  all  be  incliv 
ded  under  the  general  term  compound  flowers.  This  great 
division  of  the  vegetable  world,  includes  an  immense  number 
of  important  and  valuable  genera.  The  term  compound,  re- 
lates to  the  arrangement  of  the  flowers,  which  are  so  closely 
connected,  as  to  have  the  appearance  of  one  single  flower. 
From  the  union  of  their  stamens,  these  flowers  are  also  called 
Syngenesious.  The  compound  flowers  have,  by  botanists,  been 
distinguished  under  the  three  heads,  of  semi-flosculous  (having 
ligulate  florets) ;  flosculous  (having  tubular  florets) ;  and  radi- 
ated, having  tubular  florets  in  the  centre,  and  ligulate  at  the 
circumference,  the  latter  resembling  rays. 

The  semi-flosculous  division  contains  a  milky  juice,  which  is 
bitter  and  of  a  narcotic  quality  ;  as  the  lettuce  (Lactuca),  and 
dandelion;  their  florets  are  all  of  one  colour. 

The  flosculous  division  usually  exhibit  in  their  leaves  and 
roots,  a  predominance  of  the  bitter  principle,  as  the  burdock 
(arctium) ;  their  florets  are  also  of  one  colour. 

*  See  Mirbel's  classification  of  fruits,  order  5  of  the  class  Gyranocarps. 

Characters  of  class  9th — Campanulacse — Characters  of  class  tenth — Com- 
pound flowers— How  divided— Semi-flosculous— Flosculous. 


184  CLASSIFICATION. 

The  radiated  division  is  mostly  composed  of  plants  called 
Corymbiferous  (from  corymb  andfero,  to  bear),  because  their 
flowers  are  corymbs,  as  the  Chrysanthemum,  Aster,  &c.  This 
division  includes  many  beautiful  flowers,  with  splendid  colours ; 
and  also  affords  many  medicinal  plants,  as  tansy  and  bone-set 
(Eupatorium).  The  colour  of  the  florets  in  the  disk  and  ray 
is  often  very  different  in  these  flowers. 

The  compound  flowers  begin  to  blossom  in  the  latter  part  of 
summer,  and  are  found  bordering  upon  the  verge  of  winter. 
The  dandelion  is  among  the  earliest  flowers  of  spring,  and  one 
of  the  latest  of  autumn.  The  daisy  is  found  in  almost  every 
spot  which  exhibits  any  marks  of  fertility. 

The  dandelion  is  not  a  single  flower,  like  a  violet  or  rose, 
but  a  crowded  cluster  of  little  flowers.  The  sun-flower  is  so 
large,  and  conspicuous  as  doubtless  to  have  frequently  attracted 
your  notice.  If  you  would  examine  one  carefully  you  would 
find  it  to'  be  composed  of  more  than  a  hundred  florets  or  little 
flowers,  each  as  perfect  in  its  kind  as  a  lily,  having  its  cotolla, 
stamens,  pistil  and  seed. 

We  distinguish  the  Sun-flower  into  two  parts, — the  disk, 
which  is  the  middle  of  the*  flower,  and  supposed  to  have  resem- 
blance to  the  middle  or  body  of  the  sun  ;  the  ray  is  the  border 
of  the  flower,  or  those  florets  which  spread  out  from  the  disk, 
as  rays  of  light  diverge  from  the  sun.  The  florets  in  this,  as 
in  other  compound  flowers,  do  not  all  begin  to  expand  at  the 
same  time,  they  usually  begin  at  the  disk  and  proceed  inwards 
towards  the  centre. 

If  you  examine  with  a  microscope,  one  of  the  florets  of  the 
disk,  you  will  perceive  it  to  be  tubular,  containing  one  pistil 
surrounded  by  five  stamens,  which  are  separate,  but  the  five 
anthers  grow  together,  forming  a  tube  around  the  pistil. 

It  is  this  union  of  anthers  which  gives  to  this  kind  of  com- 
pound  flowers  a  place  in  the  class  Syngenesia,  which  name 
signifies  anthers  growing  together.  The  florets  of  the  ray  are 
called  neutral,  having  neither  stamens  nor  pistils  :  the  circum- 
stance of  neutral  florets  in  the  ray,  places  the  sun-flower  in 
the  order  Frustranea,  of  the  17th  class. 

Although  the  term  compound  is  confined  to  the  flowers  of 
the  class  Syngenesia,  the  real  circumstance  on  which  the  class 
is  founded  is  not  the  compound  character  of  the  flower,  but  the 
union  of  the  anthers.  A  Clover  blossom  in  one  sense,  may  be 
said  to  be  compound,  as  it  is  a  collection  of  many  little  flowers 
compounded  or  united  into  one  ;  but  each  little  floret  of  the 
clover  has  its  own  calyx  ;  there  is  no  general  calyx  enclosing 
the  whole,  as  in  most  of  the  Syngenesious  plants,  but  the  florets 

Radiated— Dandelion—Sunflower. 


NATURAL  FAMILIES. 


185 


are  arranged  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  a  head  ;  the  anthers 
are  separate,  the  filaments  are  connected  at  their  sides,  and  this 
latter  circumstance,  together  with  the  papilionaceous  form  of 
the  corolla,  places  the  clover  in  the  class  Diadelphia. 

Most  of  the  Syngenesious  flowers  are  composed  of  two 
sorts  of  florets,  either  tubular,  with  a  toothed  margin ;  or  strap 
shaped  (ligulate),  appearing  flat  like  a  strap,  but  being  also 
toothed  at  the  edge  ;  the  latter  are  sometimes  called  Semi-flo. 
rets,  or  half  flowers. 

Analysis  of  the  daisy. 
Fig.  97. 

We  have,  at  Fig. 
97,  a  representation  of 
the  mountain  daisy ; 
we  will,  in  regular  or- 
der, consider  the  ap- 
pearance of  its  differ- 
ent parts. 

1.  The  Root,  a  :  yxm 
will  observe    this   an- 
swers   to  the    general 
description   of  fibrous, 
the    small    thread-like 
parts  issuing  from  the 
main   root,   or   radix: 
from  these  fibres,  some- 
times spring  out  little 
tubercles,  it  is  then  said 
to  be.fibrous  tubercled. 

2.  The   Leaves,   b, 
you    observe)     spring 
from  the  root,  and  are 
hence  called   radical;  . 
being  undivided,  they 
are  called  simple.     In 
form    they  are   some- 

•what  oval,  with  the 
narrow  end  towards 
the  stem;  this  form  is  called  obovate.  The  leaves  are  said  to 
be  crenate,  on  account  of  the  notches  upon  their  margin. 

3.  The  Stem,  c,  is  called  a  scape ,-  because  it  springs  directly 
from  the  root,  and  bears  no  leaves ;  it  is  said  to  be  naked, 
having  no  kind  of  appendages. 

Why  is  the  clover  not  compound  ?— Describe  the  root,  leaves  and  stem  pf 
the  Daisy. 

16* 


186 


CLASSIFICATION. 


4.  The  Calyx,  d,  is  said  to  be  hemispherical,  or  a  half  sphere ; 
it  is  common,  that  is  enclosing  many  florets  ;  the  leafets  of  the 
calyx,  sometimes  called  scales,  are  equal,  or  of  the  same  size. 

5.  The  Corolla,  e,  is  compound,  having  many  florets  on  one 
receptacle,  radiate,  having  rays ;  the  florets  of  the  disk  are 

Fig.  98.  tubular  (Fig.  98,  a,)  ;  they  have 

.both  stamens  and  pistils;  tkey 
are  funnel  shaped,  and  five  tooth- 
ed ;  the  florets  of  the  ray,  b,  are 
flat,  and  have  pistils  without  sta- 
mens. 

t/^  6.  The  Stamens,  c,  are  jive,  uni- 

0        itfl>  t^  at  tne  summits  by  their  anthers, 

-y       forming  a  tube. 
A      ^JMp        ?•  Tne  ptettj  in  the  disk  florets, 
a       ***         i|  d  Passes  UP  through  the  tube  formed 
IV       by  the  anthers,  d  ;  the   stigma  is 
A       parted  into  two  divisions,  which 
P        are    reflexed    (bent   back) ;    the 
pistil  in  the  ray  florets  passes  up  through  the  tube  of  the  floret. 

8.  The  plant  has  no  pericarp,  or  seed  vessel,  the  seeds 
grow  upon  the  receptacle,  e,  they  are  single  and  shaped  some- 
what  like  an  egg ;  they  are  also  naked,  that  is,  destitute  of 
the  downy  plume  called  egret,  which  is  seen  upon  the  dande- 
lion, and  many  other  of  the  syngenesious  plants. 

9.  The  receptacle  is  conical,  or  in  shape  resembles  a  sugar 
loaf;  it  is  dotted  with  little  holes  :  these  are  the  places  in  which 
the   seeds   were   fixed ;    the    appearance   of  the  receptacle, 
whether  naked  or  chaffy,  is  very  important  to  be  observed  in 
the  syngenesious  plants ;  it  sometimes  constitutes  a  distinction 
between  genera.     The  seed  belongs  to  the  genus  of  fruits, 
Cypsela.* 

The  botanical  name  of  the  daisy  is  BELLIS  perennis.  It  be- 
longs to  the  class  17th,  Syngenesia,  because  the  anthers  arc 
united  ;  order  2d,  Superflua,  because  the  pistils  in  the  ray  are 
superfluous,  having  no  stamens.  The  generic  name  Bellis,  is 
from  an  ancient  Latin  word,  belles,  handsome ;  from  which 
comes  also  the  French  word  bel;  the  specific  name,  perennis, 
signifies  that  it  is  a  porennial  plant,  or  one  whose  roots  live 
several  years. 

The  common  name,  daisy,  is  derived  from  a  property, 
which  many  of  the  syngenesious  plants  possess,  of  folding  up 

*  See  Mirbel's  Classification  of  fruits,  order  1  of  the  class  Gymnocarps. 

Describe  the  Calyx  of  the  Daisy — The  Corolla — The  Stamens — The  pistil — 
The  Pericarp — The  receptacle — Botanical  name,  class  and  order  of  the  daisy 
— ^Derivation  of  the  botanical  name— The  common  name. 


NATURAL  FAMILIES.  187 

their  petals  at  the  setting  of  the  sun,  and  expanding  them  with 
its  rising.  The  poet  Chaucer,  who  lived  in  the  fourteenth 
century,  is  said  to  have  first  noticed  this  circumstance,  and  to 
have  called  the  flower  Day's-eye.  The  French  name  for  the 
daisy  is  La  belle  Margarite. 

CLASS  11. 

Corolla  monopetalous,  epigynous  (above  the  germ).  Anthers 
distinct. 

The  most  important  family  in  this  class  is  the  Rubiacea,  in 
which  we  find  the  Peruvian  bark,  (Cinchona,)  a  native  of 
South  America ;  it  was  discovered  by  the  Jesuits,  and  by  them, 
introduced  into  France  towards  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  It  was  at  first  called  Jesuit's  bark.  Some  of  the 
French  chemists  have  recently  discovered  in  this  bark  two 
alkaline  principles,  which  they  call  quinine  and  cinchonine ; 
these  alkalies  united  to  sulphuric  acid,  forming  sulphates,  are 
found  to  be  of  great  use  in  medicine. 

The  family  Rubiacece  contains  some  other  valuable  medi- 
cinal plants';'  and  some  which  are  of  great  use  in  dyeing,  as 
the  Rubia  tinctoria,  which  gives  to  wool  a  fine  red  colour. 
This  family  contains  a  genus  very  common  in  our  fields,  the 
Galium,  and  some  other  important  genera,  not  distinguished 
by  striking  peculiarities  of  natural  character. 
CLASS  12. 

Corolla  polypetalousj  stamens  epigynous  (above  the  germ). 

This  class  presents  us  with  one  important  family,  the  Umbel- 
late (  Umbelliferce). 

The  plants  of  this  natural  family  are  found  in  the  artificial 
class  Pentandria ;  they  derive  their  name  from  the  Latin  word 
umbella,  an  umbrella,  on  account  of  the  manner  in  which  the 
peduncles  or  flower  stalks  extend  from  the  main  stem. 

The  umbellate  plants  are  mostly  herbaceous ;  those  which 
grow  on  dry  ground  are  aromatic,  as  dill,  fennel,  and  caraway ; 
those  which  grow  in  wet  places,  or  the  aquatic  species,  are 
among  the  most  deadly  poisons,  as  water-hemlock,  &c.  Plants 
of  this  family  are  not,  in  general,  so  beautiful  to  the  sight,  or 
so  interesting,  as  objects  of  botanical  analysis,  as  many 
others.* 

*  "  Botanists  in  general  shrink  from  the  study  of  the  Umbelliferse ;  nor  have 
these  plants  much  beauty  in  the  eyes  of  amateurs  ;  but  they  will  repay  th« 
trouble  of  a  careful  observation.  The  late  M.  Cusson,  of  Montpelier,  bestow- 
ed more  pains  upon  them  than  any  other  botanist  has  ever  done ;  but  the  world 

Characters  of  Class  11 — Rubiacea? — Peruvian  bark — What  two  alkaline 
principles  obtained  from  it  ? — What  term  is  given  to  these  alkalies  when 
united  with  sulphuric  acid  ? — Other  genera  in  the  family  Rubiaeese — Charac- 
ters of  Claas  12—Umbellifer8e. 


188  CLASSIFICATION. 

The  corolla  is  superior,  or  over  the  germ ;  it  consists  of  fire 
petals,  usually  with  a  stamen  standing  between  each  petal. 
From  the  centre  of  the  flower,  arise  two  styles,  which  often 
remain  permanent  upon  the  fruit.  The  general  figure  of  the 
fruit  is  oblong  or  oval ;  it  separates  perpendicularly  into  two 
seeds,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  fennel  or  dill.  The  figure,  mar- 
gin, and  angles  of  the  seeds  are  considered  as  affording  proper 
characters  for  the  distinction  of  genera  ;  as  in  the  parsnip, 
they  are  flat,  in  the  carrot,  bristly,  in  the  hemlock,  marked 
with  ridges.  Among  the  plants  of  this  family  which  are  used 
as  articles  of  food,  are  the  carrot,  parsnip,  celery,  and  parsley  ; 
the  aromatics  are  dill,  fennel,  sweet  cicely,  caraway,  and  co- 
riander ;  among  the  poisonous  plants,  are  the  conium  (]x>ison 
hemlock),  water-parsnip,  and  the  cicuta  (water-hemlock). 
The  seed  of  umbilleferous  plants  belong  to  the  genus  of  fruits, 
Cremocarp. 

CLASS  13. 

Corolla  polypetolov-s,  stamens  hypogynous  (under  the  germ). 

In  this  class  the  principal  family  is  the  Cruciform  (Crucife- 
r<z).  In  these  plants  we  find  such  flowers  as  have  a  calyx 
consisting  of  four  leaves,  and  a  corolla  composed  of  four  pe- 
tals ;  each  petal  is  fastened  to  the  receptacle  or  bottom  of  the 
calyx  by  a  narrow  part  called  a  claw ;  the  whole  exhibiting 
the  form  of  a  cross ;  hence  the  term  cruciform,  from  crux,  a 
cross.  In  the  centre  of  the  flower  is  a  single  pistil,  long  and 
cylindrical;  the  stigma  is  oblong  and  divided  into  two  parts, 
which  are  reflexed  or  bent  back  on  each  side.  Each  petal  is 
placed  between  two  leaves  of  the  calyx ;  this  alternate  position 
is  always  seen  in  flowers  where  the  number  of  petals  equals 
the  number  of  leaves  of  the  calyx.  , 

The  cruciform  flowers  have  six  stamens,  two  of  which  stand- 
ing opposite  to  each,  other  are  shorter  than  the  remaining  four, 
which  always  stand  in  pairs.  This  inequality  in  their  length 
determines  them  to  be  in  the  class  Tetradynamia.  The  germ 
soon  becomes  a  long  pod  called  a  silique,  or  a  short  thick  one, 
called  silicula;  this  difference  in  the  length  of  the  two  pods 
constitutes  the  distinction  of  the  two  orders  of  the  class  in 
which  they  are  placed. 

The  plants  belonging  to  this  class  are  herbaceous  ;  the  leaves 
are  alternate ;  the  cabbage,  the  mustard,  radish,  and  stock- 
has,  as  yet  been  favoured  with  only  a  part  of  his  remarks.  His  labours  met 
with  a  most  ungrateful  check,  in  the  unkindness,  and  still  more  mortifying 
stupidity  of  his  wife,  who,  in  his  absence  from  home,  is  recorded  to  have  de- 
•troyed  his  whole  herbarium,  scraping  off  the  dried  specimens  for  the  sake  of 
the  paper  on  which  they  were  pasted  !" — Sir  James  Edward  Smith's  Botany. 

Characters  of  Class  13 — Describe  the  cruciform  plants. 


NATURAL  FAMILIES. 


189 


gilly-flower  belong  to  this   family.     They  are  found,  on  a 
chemical  analysis,  to  contain  some  sulphur. 
Fig.  99. 


B 


Fig.  99,  A,  represents  a  flower  of  the  cruciform  family ;  at 
B,  a,  may  be  seen  the  stamens  arranged  in  two  sets,  four  being 
longer  than  the  two  at  b ;  at  c,  are  two  glands  between  the 
short  stamens  and  the  germ  ;  at  C,  is  a  petal,  consisting  of  a, 
the  border,  and  3,  the  claw ;  at  Z>,  is  the  pod  or  silicle ;  a  repre- 
sents the  valves,  3,  the  seeds  as  alternately  attached  to  the 
edges  of  the  partition  or  dissepiment  which  divides  this  kind  of 
pericarp  into  two  cells. 

CLASS  14. 

Corolla  polypetalousj  stamens  perigynous  (around  the  germ). 

In  this  class  we  find  the  family  rosacece,  having  rosaceous 
corollas ;  a  calyx  mostly  urn-form  ;  petals  usually  5,  inserted 
into  the  top  of  the  calyx  ;  stamens  indefinite,  generally  over 
10.  The  structure  of  the  fruit  varies  in  the  apple  (Pyrus  ma- 
ins), the  fruit  is  below  the  top  of  the  calyx  and  contains  many 
cells ;  embryo  without  albumen.  The  pericarp  of  the  apple 
is  classed  by  Mirbel  in  the  order  Bacca  or  berry,  and  the  genus 
Pyridion.  The  rose  belongs  to  the  same  natural  family  as  the 
apple,  and  gives  name  to  the  whole  group  described  under  the 
name  Rosaceous. 

Examine  an  apple  blossom  and  a  wild  rose,  and  you  will 
perceive  the  former  to  be  a  miniature  representation  of  the  lat- 
ter ;  their  fruits,  too,  which  at  first  thought  might  seem  to-you 

Explain  Fig.,  99— Characters  of  Class  14— Describe  the  rosacese— Compar- 
ison between  the  apple  and  rose. 


190  CLASSIFICATION. 

to  be  very  different,  are  yet  similar ;  both  are  crowned  with 
the  adhering  calyx,  and  contain  many  seeds  in  a  pericarp 
formed  by  the  swelling  of  the  calyx.  But  in  their  real  value 
the  fruit  of  the  rose  bears  but  a  poor  comparison  with  that  of 
the  apple,  although  its  blossom  is  far  more  splendid ;  thus  it 
often  is,  that  beauty  seems  destined  to  prove  less  valuable  than 
more  humble  qualities. 

In  the  class  of  plants  we  are  now  considering,  is  found  a 
very  large  and  important  family,  called  Leguminosa  (legumi- 
nous), from  the  nature  of  the  fruit,  which  is  of  that  kind  called 
a  legume;  the  flowers  of  this  family  are  also  called  pni>Ulona- 
ceottSy  from  a  Latin  word  papilio,  a  butterfly,  on  account  of  the 
supposed  resemblance  between  them  and  that  insect ;  they  are 
generally  flowers  with  brilliant  colouring,  and  of  showy  ap- 
pearance. The  sweet  pea  may  be  given  as  an  example ;  this 
unites  to  delicacy  of  colour  and  beauty  of  form,  a  highly  fra. 
grant  perfume. 

Fig.  100. 


Fig.  100  represents  the  sweet  pea  (Lathyrus  odoratas) ;  at 
a,  is  the  five  toothed  calyx ;  at  b,  is  the  upper  petal,  called  the 
banner ;  at  c,  are  the  wings,  or  two  side  petals ;  at  d,  is  the 
keel,  formed  of  two  petals  united  by  their  edges ;  at  e,  are  the 
ten  stamens,  nine  united  and  one  separate  ;  at  jft  is  the  pistil, 
the  base  of  which,  in  process  of  time,  becomes  the  pod  or-  le- 
gume. 

The  flowers  belonging  to  the  family  Leguminosse,  are  so 
peculiar  in  appearance  as  to  make  them  easily  recognized. 

Legununoiee. 


NATURAL  FAMILIES.  191 

The  rose,  the  pink,  and  the  bell-flower,  are  regular  in  their 
form ;  that  is,  there  is  a  symmetry  and  equality  in  their  parts. 
In  a  regular  corolla,  if  we  suppose  the  point  of  a  compass 
placed  upon  its  centre,  and  a  circle  traced  around  the  edge  of 
the  flower,  each  one  of  its  divisions  will  just  touch  the  circle. 
There  may,  however,  be  slight  inequalities  in  regular  corollas, 
as  in  the  lily  we  sometimes  see  some  petals  a  little  longer  than 
the  others  ;  this  is  an  exception  to  the  general  rule. 

You  must  learn  to  distinguish  between  rules  and  exceptions ; 
it  is  often  owing  to  a  want  of  this  discrimination,  that  young 
persons  find  difficulties  in  understanding  a  science  ;  they  con- 
found the  rules  and  exceptions,  thinking,  very  erroneously,  that 
the  knowledge  of  the  one  is  as  important  as  that  of  the  other. 
If  a  clear  conception  of  general  rules  be  established  in  the  mind, 
the  exceptions  or  variations  will  be  gradually  learned  as  you 
apply  the  rules  to  particular  cases.  But  if  you  attempt,  at  the 
commencement  of  the  study  of  any  science,  to  learn  all  the  ex- 
ceptions  as  well  as  rules,  you  will  never  obtain  clear  ideas  up.' 
on  the  subject. 

You  will  recollect  the  general  rules  with  respect  to  regular 
corollas.  Irregular  corollas  differ  so  widely  from  these  general 
rules,  that  you  will  be  in  little  danger  of  mistaking  them  for  ex- 
ceptions;  they  constitute,  indeed,  a  different  natural  family, 
though  according  to  the  artificial  method  of  classification,  they 
may  often  be  placed  near  to  regular  corollas.  Irregular  corol- 
las are  various  in  their  forms ;  the  papilionaceous,  which  we 
are  now  considering,  seem,  as  they  stand  upon  their  stem,  to 
consist  of  an  upper  and  under  part.  In  examining  a  natural 
flower  of  this  kind,  a  pea  for  example,  you  should  first  observe 
the  calyx ;  this  is  monophyllous,  that  is,  consisting  of  one  entire 
leaf, ending  in  five  distinct  leafy  points  (See  Fig.  100,  a);  the 
two  upper  ones  wider  than  the  three  under  ones.  The  calyx 
bends  towards  the  lower  part,  as  also  does  the  peduncle,  or  lit- 
tle stalk  which  supports  it.  The  peduncle  is  very  small  and 
flexible  (See  Fig.  100,g) ;  so  that  the  flower  readily  avoids  a 
current  of  air,  and  turns  its  back  to  the  wind  and  rain. 

In  examining  the  corolla  you  will  see  that  it  is  polypetalous. 
The  first  piece,  or  large  petal,  covering  the  others  and  occupy- 
ing the  upper  part  of  the  corolla,  is  called  the  standard  or  ban- 
ner. This  petal  is,  evidently,  designed  to  protect  the  stamens 
and  other  parts  of  the  flower,  from  injuries  by  the  weather. 
Upon  taking  off  the  banner  you  will  find  that  it  is  inserted  by 
a  little  process,  or  projecting  part  into  the  side  pieces,  so  that 

Regular  corollas — Important  to  distinguish  between  rules  and  exceptions — 
—- juar  corollas — Manner  of  examining  a  natural  flower  of  the  papilionaceous 


1Q2  CLASSIFICATION. 

it  cannot  be  easily  separated  by  winds.  The  banner  being 
taken  off,  the  two  side  pieces,  or  wings,  are  exposed  to  view  ; 
they  are  strongly  inserted  into  tJ*  <iumg  part  of  the  co- 

rolla, and  their  use  appears  to  be,  lirat  of  protecting  the  sides  of 
the  flower.  Upon  taking  off  the  win£s,  you  will  discover  the 
last  piece  of  the  corolla,  called,  on  account  of  its  form,  the  keel 
or  boat.  This  covers  and  protects  the  stamens  and  pistils. 
Upon  drawing  the  keel  downwards,  you  will  find  the  ten  sta- 
mens, double  in  number  to  the  petals ;  these  stamens  are  joined 
together  by  the  sides  of  their  filaments,  apj>earing  like  a  cylin- 
der surrounding  the  pistil.  One  of  the  stamens,  however,  does 
not  adhere  to  the  rest ;  but  as  the  flower  fades  and  the  fruit 
increases,  it  separates  and  leaves  an  opening  at  the  upper  side, 
through  which  the  germ  can  extend  itself  by  gradually  opening 
the  cylinder.  In  the  early  stage  of  the  flower,  this  stamen  will 
seem  not  to  be  separated ;  but  by  carefully  moving  it  with  a 
pin  or  needle,  its  filament  will  be  found  unconnected  with  the 
•ther  nine. 

The  germ  of  the  papilionaceous  plant  extends  itself  into  that 
kind  of  pod  called  a  legume.  It  is  distinguished  from  the  Si- 
lique  of  the  cruciform  family,  by  having  no  partition  in  the  le- 
gume. Besides,  the  seeds  grow  to  one  side  only,  being  alter- 
nately attached  to  the  edges  of  the  two  valves;  but  in  the 
silique  pod  they  are  alternately  attached  to  both  edges  of  the 
partition.  The  legume  also  opens  lengthwise  and  rolls  back- 
wards ;  in  the  silique,  the  valves  separate  and  stand  out  from 
the  base  upwards. 

The  seeds  of  this  family,  as  you  have  been  already  inform- 
ed, have  a  marked  scar,  black  spot,  or  line,  called  the  hilum, 
by  which  they  adhere  to  the  pod.  Near  this  scar  there  is  a 
minute  opening  into  the  body  of  the  seed,  through  which  mois- 
ture is  imbibed,  at  the  period  of  its  first  growth  or  germination. 
The  proper  germ,  or  that  part  of  the  seed  which  is  to  be  the 
future  plant,  continues  to  swell,  and  at  length  bursts  through 
the  coats  of  the  seed,  presenting  between  the  divided  halves 
the  first  true  leaves,  and  the  root,  which  commences  its  jour- 
ney downwards.  These  divided  halves  of  the  seed  are  the  co- 
tyledons or  seed  leaves,  which  furnish  sustenance  to  the  plant 
until  it  is  sufficiently  mature  to  seek  its  own  support,  and  then 
they  gradually  decay. 

In  this  family  we  find  the  fine  table  vegetables,  beans  and 
peas  ;  the  useful  medicinal  plant,  liquorice ;  the  fine  colouring 
indigo ;  the  fragrant  clover,  so  grateful  as  food  to  many  of  the 
domestic  animals ;  the  splendid  locust  tree  ;  the  elegant  lupine, 
and  the  delicate  and  odoriferous  sweet  pea. 

Distinction  between  legume  and  silique. 


NATURAL  FAMILIES. 


193 


CLASS  15. 

Stamens  dicUnious,  that  is,  in  a  different  flower  from  the  pistils. 
Having  followed  Jussieu  in  his  leading  principles  of  arrange- 
ment, we  have  now  arrived  at  that  class  of  plants  which  we 
term  imperfect,  as  the  stamens  and  pistils  are  no  longer  united 
in  the  same  flower.  We  here  find  a  large  family  called  Cu- 
curbitacece,  from  curvus,  curved;  this  contains  the  genera  of 
the  squash,  gourd,  cucumber,  &c.  which  have  Monoecious,  and 
sometimes  Dioecious  flowers. 

The  Amentacea  are  also  found  in  Jussieu's  15th  class.  This 
family  has  its  staminate  flowers  arranged  with  scales,  in  that 
form  of  inflorescence,  called  an  ament.  The  stems  of  these 
plants  are  woody  and  exogenous  ;  you  will  recollect  that  such 
stems  increase  in  diameter,  by  new  wood  being  formed  around 
the  old,  and  that  this  new  wood  is  formed  from  the  cambium 
Fig.  101.  which  flows  downwards  between  the  wood 
and  bark :  any  thing  which  interrupts  the 
course  of  this  cambium  would  naturally  cause 
a  protuberance  in  the  trunk,  at  the  spot  where 
the  obstruction  should  take  place.  Fig.  101, 
shews  a  portion  of  the  trunk  of  an  oak  surround- 
ed by  the  twining  stem  of  a  wild  vine  ;  the 
pressure  causing  an  accumulation  of  cambium, 
produced  the  protuberances  which  appear 
above  the  vine.  Walking  canes  are  often 
made  of  young  stems  which  are  thus  knotted. 
The  last  family  in  this  claes,  and  the  hun- 
dredth or  last  order  of  Jussieu  contains  the  Co- 
nifera  or  cone-bearing  plants  ;  their  staminate 
flowers  grow  in  aments,  each  flower  being  fur- 
nished with  a  scale  which  performs  the  office 
of  a  calyx  in  supporting  the  stamens. 

The  pistillate  flowers  form  cones  or  strobi- 
lums.  To  this  family  belong  the  cedar  (Juni- 
perus),  pine,  cypress,  &c. ;  most  of  them  con. 
tain  a  resinous  juice,  which  is  valuable  in  medi- 
cine. Turpentine  is  obtained  from  the  pine ;  one  species  of 
the  Juniperus  has  been  supposed  to  have  furnished  the  incense 
offered  to  the  heathen  deities. 

Class  15th— Cucurbitacese— Amentaceae— Explain  Fig.  101— Coniferae. 

17 


194  BOTANICAL  NAMES. 


LECTURE  XXIII. 

Use  of  Botanical  Names. — Artificial  classes  and  orders  consider- 
ed in  groups. — Classes  1st  and  2d. 

HAVING  briefly  noticed  some  of  the  most  conspicuous  natu- 
ral families  of  plants,  according  to  the  arrangement  of  Jussieu, 
we  will  now  proceed  to  investigate  in  detail  the  Artificial  or 
Linnaan  System. 

From  what  has  been  already  observed,  you  have  no  doubt 
come  to  the  conclusion,  that  this  is  the  best  method  yet  disco- 
vered,  of  finding  out  new  plants,  and  of  ascertaining  the  bo- 
tanical names  of  those  which  are  already  known  by  their  com- 
mon names.  If,  in  all  countries,  the  common  names  were  alike, 
there  would  be  no  need  of  any  other;  but  the  names  of  plants 
vary,  in  different  languages,  as  much  as  other  terms.  We 
call  that  pen  which,  in  France,  is  called  plume,  so  we  call  that 
oak,  which  is  there  called  chene.*  Even  in  the  same  coun- 
tries, and  often  in  the  same  neighbourhoods,  the  common  names 
of  plants  are  different,  but  botanical  names  are  the  same,  in  all 
ages  and  countries ;  without  this  uniformity  no  permanent  im- 
provement could  be  made  in  the  science.  Suppose  a  botanist 
in  France  should  send  a  description  of  la  chene  (the  common 
name  for  oak),  to  his  friend  in  America;  if  the  latter  knew 
something  of  French,  he  might  mistake  the  word  chene  for  chien, 
which  signifies  a  dog,rnd  thus  he  might  fall  into  the  grotesque 
mistake  of  supposing  that  his  friend  had  described  a  wonderful 
species  of  dogs.  But  let  the  French  botanist  use  the  term  quer- 
cus,  and  on  the  supposition  that  the  American  understood  bota- 
ny, he  would  at  once  know  the  meaning  of  the  term  as  plainly 
as  if  it  had  been  written  oak.  All  botanical  names  are  in  Latin, 
because  this  is  the  language  most  universally  studied ;  and  for 
this  reason  all  books  on  botany  v/cre  fora  long  time  written  in 
that  language.-)-  And  although  it  is  well  for  the;  Ic-irm-d  thus 
to  communicate  with  each  other,  by  one  common  language,  it 
would  be  unjust  to  deprive  all  who  are  not  versed  in  that  lan- 
guage, of  the  pleasure  and  advantage  to  be  derived  from  this 
delightful  science.  But  the  learned  are  not  only  intent  upon 
making  discoveries ;  they  also  desire  to  impart  them  to  others ; 
and  the  fountains  of  botanical  knowledge  have,  by  the  exer- 
tions of  men  of  genius  and  learning,  been  made  accessible  to  all. 

*  Pronounced  shane.  * 

t  All  the  botanical  works  of  Linnaeus  were  written  in  Latin. 

Use  of  botanical  name*. 


ARTIFICIAL  CLASSES.  195 

In  the  view  we  are  now  to  take  of  the  classes  and  orders  of 
Linnaeus,  our  attention  will  not,  as  in  the  Natural  Method,  be 
given  to  families  of  plants,  but  to  genera.  We  shall  consider 
each  class  separately,  with  the  orders  it  contains,  and  the  most 
remarkable  genera  under  each  order ;  we  shall,  in  some  cases, 
refer  these  genera  to  their 'natural  families;  but  it  has  been 
before  remarked,  that  the  artificial  system  in  some  cases  sepa- 
rates these  families. 

The  Classes  in  the  artificial  system  are  21. 

Groups  of  Classes. 

1st.   The  first  ten  classes  are  founded  upon  the  number  of  stamens. 

2d.  Eleventh  and  Twelfth  upon  the  number  and  insertion  of  stamens. 

3d.  Thirteenth  and  Fourteenth,  upon  number  and  length  of  stamens. ' 

4th.  Fifteenth,  Sixteenth,  Seventeenth  and  Eighteenth,  upon  connexion  of 
stamens. 

5th.  Nineteenih&n&  Twentieth,  upon  position  of  stamens. 

The  Twenty-first  class  includes  all  plants  which  either  have  not  stamens  and 
pistils,  or  in  which  these  organs  are  too  minute  to  be  seen,  without  the  help  of 
of  a  microscope. 

The  orders  are  founded, 

1st.  Upon  the  number  of  Pistils. 

2d.  Upon  the  seeds  being  covered,  or  lying  uncovered  in  the  calyx. 
3d.  The  relative  length  of  the  pods. 

4th.  The  comparison  between  the  disk  and  ray  florets  of  compound  flowers. 
5th.  Number  of  stamens. 

6th.  The  orders  of  the  class  Cryptogamia  are  distinguished  by  natural  family 
characters. 

NAMES  OP  THE  ARTIFICIAL  CLASSES. 

1.  MONANDRIA,  one  stamen. 

2.  DIANDRIA,  two  stamens. 

3.  TRIANDRIA,  three  stamens. 

4.  TETRANDRIA,  four  stamens. 

5.  PENTANDRIA,  five  stamens. 

6.  HEXA-NDRIA,  six  stamens. 

7.  HEPTANDRIA,  seven  stamens. 

8.  OCTANDRIA,  eight  stamens. 

9.  ENNEANDRIA,  nine  stamens. 

10.  DECANDRIA,  ten  stamens, 

11.  ICOSANDRIA,  over  ten  slamens,  situated  on  the  calyx. 

12.  POLYANDRIA,  over  ten  stamens  situated  on  the  receptacle. 

13.  DIDYNAMIA,  four  stamens,  two  long  and  two  short,  flowers  labiate. 

14.  TETRADYNAMIA,  six  stamens,  four  long  and  two  short,  flowers  cruciform. 

15.  MONADELPHI  A,  stamens  united  by  their  filaments  into  one  set. 

16.  DIADELPHIA,  stamens  united  by  their  filaments  into  two  sets,  flowers 
papilionaceous. 

17.  SYNGENESIA,  five  stamens  united  by  their  anthers,  flowers  compound. 

18.  GYNANDRIA,  stamens  growing  on  the  pistil. 

19.  MoN(EciA,  stamens  and  pistils  on  different  flowers  of  the  same  plant. 

20.  DIGECIA,  stamens  and  pistils  on  different  flowers  of  different  plants. 

21.  CRYPTOGAMIA,  stamens  and  pistils  invisible. 

Artificial  classes  considered  in  groirps — Circumstances  on  which  the  orders 
are  founded — Names  of  the  artificial  classes.  %• 


196  CLASS  MONANDRIA. 

CLASS  I. — MONANDRIA.     Containing  two  Orders. 
Order  Monoaynia. 

In  this  country  we  have  very  few 


Fig.  102. 


examples  of  plants  of  this  class  :  the 
Hippuris,  an  aquatic  plant,  is  some- 
times found  in  stagnant  water ;  it  is 
the  most  simple  of  all  perfect*  flowers, 
having  neither  calyx  nor  corolla,  and 
but  1  stamen,  1  pistil,  and  1  seed. 
The  germ  in  maturing,  hardens  into  a 
naked  seed  without  any  kind  of  appen- 
dages. The  genus  Hippuris  contains 
but  one  species,  the  wlgaris.  It  be- 
longs  to  the  natural  order  Inundatse, 
signifying  growing  in  water. 
Fig.  102,  o,  represents  the  Hippuris ;  the  stem  is  erect,  and 
simple ;  the  leaves  are  linear,  acute,  and  arranged  in  whorls. 
At  b,  is  the  flower  of  the  Hippuris,  showing  an  egg-shaped 
germ ;  a  short  filament  crowned  with  a  large  anther  composed 
of  two  lobes  ;  the  style  is  long  and  awl-shaped,  the  stigma  is 
acute  and  undivided;  the  germ  is  crowned  by  a  border  which 
gives  the  appearance  of  a  calyx. 

The  Salicornia  or  Samphire  is  found  in  salt  marshes  near  the 
sea  coast  ;  it  grows  also  at  the  Onondaga  salt  springs.  In 
Europe  it  is  collected  in  large  quantities,  dried  in  the  sun  and 
then  burnt ;  the  ashes  are  collected  and  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  soda.  Shakspeare  speaks  of  this  plant  in  describing 
the  precipice  of  Dover,  which  overhangs  the  sea. 

"How  fearful, 
And  dizzy  'tis  to  cast  one's  eyes  so  low ! 

Half  way  down, 
Hangs  one  that  gathers  Samphire  :  dreadful  trade !" 

Although  the  plants  of  this  class  are  so  very  limited  in  north- 
ern countries,  some  of  the  most  valuable  vegetable  productions 
of  the  tropical  regions  are  found  here ;  as  the  Arrow  root,  so 
useful  to  the  sick  as  a  nutritious  substance ;  the  Turmeric,  re- 
markable for  the  peculiar  yellow  colour  of  its  bark  ;  here  also  is 
found  the  Ginger,  which  grows  wild  in  some  parts  of  Asia,  and 
is  cultivated  in  the  East  and  West  Indies.  The  flowers  of  the 
Ginger  are  beautiful  and  fragrant  ;  the  root  only  is  used  in 
commerce.  The  Ginger  (Ammomum),  belongs  to  the  natural 
family  Scitaminea,  which  embraces  several  genera  of  aromatic 

*  Although  so  destitute  of  other  organs,  it  is  callad  perfect  because  it  has 
stamens  and  pistils. 


Class  Monandria — Order  Monogynia — Hippuris — Salicornia. 


CLASS  DIANDRIA. 


197 


Fig.  103. 


plants.  The  distinguishing  marks  of  this  natural  family  are  an 
herbaceous  stem,  very  broad  leaves,  a  germ  with  three  cor- 
ners, and  a  liliaceous  corolla. 

The  red  valerian  (VALERIANA  rubra),  has  but  one  stamen, 
and  might  seem  properly  placed  in  this  class,  but  other  species 
of  this  plant  having  three  stamens,  this  one  goes  with  the  ma- 
jority into  the  class  Triandria.  It  is  however  not  common  for 
different  species  of  one  genus  to  differ  in  their  number  of 
stamens. 

Order  Digynia, 

Contains  an  American  plant,  BLITUM,  which  is  destitute  of  a 
corolla.  At  fig.  102,  c,  is  a  flower  of  this  genus  ;  its  calyx  is 
deeply  three  parted  ;  it  has  no.  corolla  ;  the  germ  resembles  a 
berry,  and  is  crowned  by  two  styles,  which  give  the  plant  its 
place  in  the  order  Digynia.  -  » 

CLASS  II. — DIANDRIA.     Containing  three  Orders. 
Order  Monogynia. 

This,  though  more  extensive  than 
the  class  Monandria,  is  somewhat  lim- 
ited. We  can  however,  without  diffi- 
culty, find  examples  for  its  illustration. 
The  Lilac  (Syringa),  is  cultivated  in 
all  parts  of  our  country,  and  is  ex- 
ceeded in  beauty  by  few  ornamental 
shrubs,  in  fragrance,  perhaps  by  none. 
The  Corolla  is  salver  form,  or  with  a 
'tube  which  spreads  out  into  a  flat,  four 
parted  border.  You  might,  at  first 
view,  suppose  the  corolla  to  consist 
of  several  petals,  but  if  you  attempt 
to  pull  them  out,  they  will  all  come  off  together,  and  you  will 
plainly  perceive  there  is  but  one  piece,  or  that  it  is  monopeta- 
lous.  In  flowers  of  one  petal,  the  stamens  are  generally  fas- 
tened to  the  corolla  ;  where  there  are  several  petals,  the 
stamens  are  mostly  attached  to  the  receptacle  ;  this  affords  a 
good  mark  of  distinction  between  the  two  kinds  of  corollas. 
You  will  perceive  in  the  lilac,  the  two  stamens  standing  oppo- 
site to  each  other,  and  fastened  to  the  corolla.  The  form  in 
which  the  blossoms  are  crowded  together,  forming  a  large 
bunch,  is  termed  a  thyrse,  which  differs  from  a  panicle,  only  in 
having  the  spikes  which  compose  it  more  densely  crowded. 

Fig.  103,  a,  represents  a  flower  of  the  lilac ;  at  6,  is  the  same 
cut  lengthwise,  to  show  the  two  stamens. 


Diandria — Lilac. 


17* 


198  CLASS  DIANDRIA. 

The  lilac,  although  so  common  with  us,  is  an  exotic  ;  the 
species  most  cultivated  are  the  vulgaris,  or  common,  which  has 
heart-shaped  leaves ;  and  the  persica,  or  Persian,  with  narrow 
leaves. 

The  Jasmine,  of  which  twenty-eight  species  are  said  to  have 
been  discovered,  is  an  exotic  of  this  class.  The  prim  (Linus- 
trum)  is  found  growing  wild  n  some  parts  of  New  England ; 
though  in  general  it  .is  seen  but  little  in  the  United  States, 
except  when  cultivate}.  In  England,  it  is  planted  for  fences ; 
as  it  grows  rapidly,  it  soon  becomes  useful  for  this  purpose,  and 
with  its  green  leaves  and  white  flowers,  it  also  gives  to  the 
farms  an  air  of  neatness  and  taste. 

The  Sage  (Salvia),  on  account  of  the  form  of  its  corolla  be- 
longs to  the  natural  family  of  the  labiate  flowers^;  these  are, 
mostly,  placed  in  the  class  Didynamia,  having  four  stamens,  two 
long  and  two  short :  but  in  some  cases  the  labiate  flowers  have 
but  two  stamens  ;  this  circumstance,  according  to  the  rules  of 
classification^  separates  them  from  their  natural  family,  and 
brings  them  under  the  class  we  are  now  considering.  You  may 
understand  this  hotter,  if  we  compare  it  to  taking  a  person  from 
his  relations,  to  put  him  among  strangers.  But  this  evil1  must 
sometimes  be  borne  for  the  sake  of  some  attendant  good  ;  we 
are  also  obliged  to  submit  to  the  necessity  of  occasionally  sepa- 
rating the  flowers  from  their  natural  relations,  because  we  can- 
not turn  aside  from  our  rules  of  classification  to  accommodate 
a  few  plants,  which  unfortunately  possess  those  properties 
which  bring  them  under  two  sets  of  laws.  The  sage  seems  to 
have  made  an  effort  to  escape  this  misfortune,  for  it  seems  al- 
most to  have  attained  four,  by  doubling  its  filaments,  but  two 
of  these  having  no  anthers  cannot  be  considered  as  stamens  ; 
therefore  the  plant  falls  back  into  the  second  class,  and  is  pla- 
ced by  the  side  of  the  lilac,  to  which  it  has  no  kind  of  resem- 
blance, except  in  its  two  stamens.  This  plant,  however,  is  not 
the  only  one  of  the  labiate  flowers,  which  is  removed  from  its 
natural  family  in  the  13th  class  ;  for  the  rosemary  and  the 
mountain  mint  accompany  it  into  the  second  class  ;  but  these 
have  not  the  two  imperfect  filaments  which  wer6  remarked  in 
the  Sage. 

The  genus  Salvia  contains  one  hundred  and  fourteen  spe- 
cies ;  the  one  most  commonly  cultivated  with  us  is  the  officina- 
lis,  a  shrub-like  perennial  plant ;  to  this  we  give  more  particu- 
larly the  name  of  sage.  Another  species  of  the  same  genus  is 
the  sclary,  called  Clarry,  this  has  larger  and  broader  leaves 
than  the  common  sage  ;  it  is  cultivated  for  its  medicinal  pro- 
perties. 


ORDER  DIGYNIA.  199 

A  very  small  plant  called  Enchanter's  Night-shade  (Circ&a), 
may  be  found  growing  wild  in  shady  places ;  it  is  a  very  harm- 
less,  modest  looking  plant,  notwithstanding  its  ominous  name. 
It  has  a  small  white  blossom,  in  the  parts  of  which,  great  uni- 
formity as  to  number  may  be  observed  ;  having  two  stamens, 
a  corolla  with  two  petals,  a  calyx  with  two  leaves,  capsule  with 
two  cells,  each  of  which  contains  two  seeds. 

The  symmetry  of  structure,  observable  in  the  plant  just 
described,  is  seen  in  many  flowers  ;  as  those  of  two  stamens 
often  have  the  number  two  prevail  in  the  other  parts  of  the 
flower ;  tljis  number  is  frequently  doubled,  as  in  the  Lilac, 
which  has  two  stamens,  and  the  corolla  four  parted.  In  a 
plant  with  three  stamens,  the  number  three  or  six  usually  pre- 
vails in  the  divisions  of  the  calyx,  corolla,  capsule,  &c.  A 
knowledge  of  this  fact  will  assist  you  in  determining  the  class 
of  a  plant ;  for  example,  if  you  have  a  flower  Whose  calyx  has 
five  or  ten  divisions,  and  the  corolla  the  same  number,  you  may 
expect,  if  the  flower  is  a  perfect  one,  to  find  either  five,  or  ten 
stamens ;  or  if  the  divisions  of  the  flower  be  two,  there  will 
generally  be  two,  or  four  stamens ;  if  three,  either  three,  or 
six  stamens  ;  if  four,  either  four  or  eight  stamens.  The  num- 
ber five/as  divisions  of  the  calyx,  corolla  and  capsule,  is  gen- 
erally united  to  five  or  ten  stamens,  and  found  in  the  5th  and 
10th  classes. 

Another  native  plant  of  the  second  class,  is  the  Veronica. 
Of  the  seventy  species  which  this  genus  is  said  to  contain,  no 
more  than  six  or  eight  are  common  to  North  America.  The 
Veronica  and  the  Circsea  both  turn  black  when  dried  ;  although 
they  do  not  add  to  the  beauty  of  an  herbarium,  they  are  desira- 
ble in  a  collection  of  plants,  as  our  country  contains  few  spe- 
cimens to  illustrate  the  second  class.  At  Fig.  103,  c,  is  a 
representation  of  a  flower  of  the  Veronica ;  at  d,  is  the  Cir- 
caa. 

Among  the  exotics  of  this  order  we  find  a  singular  plant 
peculiar  to  the  East  Indies,  the  NYCTANTHES  arbor  tristis,  or 
sorrowful  tree  ;  it  droops  its  boughs  during  the  day,  but  through 
the  night  they  are  erect  and  appear  fresh  and  flourishing. 

The  Olive  (Olea)  is  common  on  the  rocks  of  Palestine,  and 
may  now,  according  to  the  accounts  of  travellers  be  found 
upon  the  same  spot  which  was  called,  eleven  centuries  before 
the  Christian  era,  the  mount  of  Olives,  or  mount  Olivet. 

Order  Digynia. 

In  the  second  order  of  this  class  is  the  sweet  scented  spring- 
Enchanter's  night  shade — Remaining  plants  in  the  order  Monogynia — Order 
Dygynia. 


200  CLASS  TRIANDRIA. 

grass  (ANTHOXANTIITTM  odoratum),  which  is  found  in  blossom 
in  May ;  to  this  the  pleasant  smell  of  new  made  hay  is  chiefly 
owing  ;  its  odour  is  like  that  of  clover.  This  plant  is  separa- 
ted from  the  other  grasses  on  account  of  its  having  but  two 
stamens.  This  is  the  kind  of  grass  which  is  used  in  this  coun- 
try as  a  substitute  for  the  Leghorn  grass,  in  the  manufacture 
of  hats.  The  first  hat  of  the  kind  was  made  a  few  years 
.since  by  an  ingenious  female  in  the  town  of  Wethersfield, 
Connecticut ;  since  which  time,  many  hats,  not  inferior  to  the 
best  Leghorn,  have  been  made  from  the  same  material. 

The  Catalpa,  an  elegant  tree  with  flat,  cordate,  or  heart- 
shaped  leaves,  is  indigenous  to  the  Southern  United  States ;  its 
white  flowers,  striped  with  purple,  grow  in  panicles  similar  to 
the  Horse-chesnut.  Only  one  species  is  found  in  North 
America. 

Order  Trigynia, 

Contains  the  genus  Piper.  One  species  of  which,  the  nigrum, 
is  the  common  black  pepper.  The  cayenne  pepper  belongs 
to  the  genus  CAPSICUM,  which  is  found  in  the  eighth  class. 
The  Piper  genus  has  neither  calyx  or  corolla. 

We  have  in  the  course  of  this  lecture  remarked  upon  the 
use  of  botanical  terms,  with  the  necessity  of  their  being  in  one 
common  language ;  we  have  considered  the  few  groups  into 
which  the  classes  of  Linnaeus  may  be  arranged  with  the  names 
of  all  the  classes,  and  the  characters  of  each;  and  lastly,  have 
given  a  sketch  of  the  two  first  classes,  with  some  examples 
under  each  of  their  orders.  In  doing  this,  we  have  been 
obliged  to  pass  by  many  plants  which  had  an  equal  claim  to 
notice,  but  as  knowledge  must  be  gained  by  the  observation  of 
particular  cases,  we  have  thus  selected  some,  in  order  that  you 
may  be  prepared  to  examine  the  others,  with  pleasure  and 
advantage. 


LECTURE    XXIV. 

Classes  3d  and  4th. 

CLASS  III — TRIANDRIA. 

Order  Mcmogynia. 

IN  the  first  order  of  this  class  we  find  among  our  common 
exotics,  the  Crocus,  which  is  particularly  interesting  as  being 

Catalpa — Order  Trigynia— Recapitulation— First  order  of  the  third  class — 
Different  species  of  Crocus. 


ORDER  MONOGYNIA.  201 

one  of  the  earliest  flowers  of  our  gardens,  not  unfrequently 
blossoming  in  the  neighbourhood  of  a  snow  bank.  It  has  a 
bulbous  root,  long  and  narrow  leaves,  a  spatha  kind  of  calyx, 
and  six  petals.  Besides  the  CROCUS  vernus  or  spring  crocus, 
which  often  appears  even  in  our  own  climate  as  early  as 
March,  there  is,  of  this  genus  a  very  distinct  species,  the  CRO- 
CUS officinalis,  or  the  true  saffron,  which  appears  among  the 
late  flowers  of  autumn.  The  following  beautiful  lines,  respect, 
ing  these  flowers,  are  from  the  pen  of  the  interesting  Henry 
Kirke  White,  whose  untimely  death,  in  the  spring  time  of  his 
existence,  has  been  deeply  regretted,  but  his  early  and  fervent 
piety,  marked  him  as  a  fit  inhabitant  for  a  purer  sphere ;  a 
Christian,  and  philosopher,  he  could  see  an  invisible  hand  di- 
recting the  operations  of  nature. 

"  Say,  what  impels  amid  surrounding  snow 
Congealed,  the  Crocus'  flamy  bud  to  grow  ? 
Say,  what  retards,  amid  the  summer's  blaze, 
The  autumnal  bulb,  till  pale  declining  days  ? 
The  GOD  OF  SEASONS,  whose  pervading  power 
Controls  the  Sun,  or  sheds  the  fleecy  shower  : 
He  bids  each  flower  his  quickening  word  obey  ; 
Or  to  each  lingering  bloom,  enjoins  delay." 

The  Iris,  or  Fleur-de-lis,  (pronounced  by  a  corruption  of  the 
French,  Flower  de  luce,)  is  the  national  flower  of  France,  as 
the  Rose  is  of  England.  You  will  find  on  attentive  examina- 
tion that  this  is  a  very  curious  flower.  It  has  no  proper  calyx, 
but  a  spatha ;  its  corolla  consists  of  six  parts,  alternately  re- 
flected, or  bent  back :  the  pistil  has  three  stigmas,  which  ap- 
pear at  first  view  like  petals.  The  Iris  is  so  named  from  Iris, 
the  rainbow,  on  account  of  the  various  colours  which  it  reflects, 
varying  from  different  shades  of  purple,  into  blue,  orange, 
yellow,  and  white.  We  have  several  native  species  of  Iris, 
one  of  which,  the  common  Blue  flag,  is  found  in  wet  places. 
The  flowers  are  purple,  streaked  with  yellow  ;  this  is  sometimes 
called  Poison  flag.  The  Crocus  and  Iris  are  found  in  the 
natural  family  of  Jussieu  called  Iridea ;  this  family  is  in  the 
class  of  monocotyledons,  having  stamens  around  the  germ,  or 
perigynous.  Linnaeus  calls  the  same  plants,  Ensatce  from  the 
Latin  word  ensis,  a  sword,  on  account  of  the  shape  of  their 
leaves,  being  long,  narrow  and  pointed. 

In  what  family  is  the  Iris  found  ?  * 


202  CLASS  TRIANDRIA. 


Fig.  104. 


Fig.  104,  represents  the  Ixia  (black 
berry-lily) ;  a, is  an  entire  flower;  b> 
is  the  corolla  cut  lengthwise,  to  shew 
the  three  stamens.  The  Ixia  belongs 
to  the  same  family  as  the  Iris  and  Cro- 
cus. At  c,  is  the  flower  of  the  mat- 
grass  (Nardus) ;  having  but  one  pistil, 
it  is  separated  from  the  grass  family, 
the  greater  part  of  which,  we  shall 
meet  with  in  the  next  order  of  this 
class. 


Order  Digynia. —  The  Grasses. 

The  2d  Order  of  the  third  class  contains  the  family  of  the 
grasses  (Gramina) ;  they  are  distinguished  by  a  strait,  hollow, 
and  jointed  stem,  or  culm ;  the  long  and  linear  leaves  are  pla- 
ced at  each  joint  of  the  stalk  in  alternate  order,  enclosing  it 
like  a  sheath.  The  flowers  of  the  grasses  are  found  in  what 
is  called  the  ear,  or  head,  and  consist  of  two  green  husks, 
called  a  glume  ;  within  this  glume  calyx  is  the  blossom,  con- 
sisting of  a  husk  of  two  valves.  These  husks  constitute  the 
chaff",  which  is  separated  from  the  seed  by  an  operation  called 
threshing. 

These  little  flowers,  which  are  also  furnished  with  a  nectary, 
are  green,  like  the  rest  of  the  plant,  and  you  will  need  a  mi- 
croscope to  view  them  accurately  ;  they  are  best  observed  in 
a  mature  stage  of  the  plant,  when  their  husks,  expanded,  dis- 
cover their  three  filaments,  containing  each  a  large  double  an- 
ther ;  their  two  pistils  have  a  kind  of  reflected,  feathered  stig- 
ma. They  have  no  seed  vessel ;  each  seed  is  contained  within 
the  husks,  which  gradually  open ;  and  unless  the  seed  is  gath- 
ered in  season,  it  falls  to  the  ground.  This  facility  for  the 
distribution  of  the  seed  is  one  cause  of  the  very  general  diffu- 
sion of  grasses. 

The  roots  of  grasses  are  fibrous,  and  increase  in  proportion 
as  the  leaves  are  trodden  down,  or  consumed  ;  and  the  stalks 
which  support  the  flower  are  seldom  eaten  by  cattle,  so  that 
the  seeds  are  suffered  to  ripen.  Some  grasses  which  grow  on 
very  high  mountains  where  the  heat  is  not  sufficient  to  ripen 
the  seed,  are  propagated  by  suckers  or  shoots,  which  rise  from 
the  root,  spread  along  the  ground,  and  then  take  root  them- 
selves ;  grasses  of  this  kind  are  called  stoloniferous,  which 


Explain  Fig.  104— What  family  is  found  in  the  order  Digynia  ?— Roots  of 
the  grasses. 


ORDER  DIGYNIA.  203 

means  bearing  shoots.  Some  others  are  propagated  in  a  man- 
ner  not  less  wonderful ;  for  the  seeds  begin  to  grow  while  in 
the  flower  itself,  and  new  plants  are  there  formed,  with  little 
leaves  and  roots ;  they  then  fall  to  the  ground,  where  they 
take  root. ,  Such  grasses  are  called  vivip'-arous,  which  signifies 
producing  their  offspring  alive,  either  by  bulbs  instead  of  seeds, 
or  by  seeds  germinating  on  the  plant.  The  seeds  of  the 
grasses  have  but  one  lobe,  or  are  not  naturally  divided  into 
parts,  like  the  apple  seed  and  the  bean ;  therefore  these  are 
said  to  have  but  one  cotyledon. 

The  stems  of  gramineous  plants,  like  those  of  all  the  mono- 
cotyledons, are  of  that  kind  which  grow  internally,  or  from  the 
centre  outward,  and  are  therefore  called  endogenous. 

With  regard  to  the  duration  of  the  grass-like  plants,  some  are 
annual;  as,  wheat,  rye,  and  oats,  whose  roots  die  after  the 
grain  or  seed  is  matured.  The  meadow  grasses  are  perennial ; 
their  herbage  dying  in  autumn,  and  the  roots  sending  out  new 
leaves  in  the  spring.  The  family  of  grasses  is  one  of  the  most 
numerous,  the  most  important  and  the  most  natural  of  all  the 
vegetable  tribes  ;  the  plants  which  compose  it,  seem,  at  the  first 
glance,  to  be  so  similar  that  it  would  appear  impossible  to  sepa- 
rate them  into  species,  much  less  into  genera ;  but  scientific  re- 
search, and  close  observation  present  us  with  differences,  suffi- 
cient to  form  a  basis,  for  the  establishment  of  a  great  number  of 
genera. 

The  essential  character  of  the  oat  (Avena),  consists  in  the 
jointed,  twisted  awn  or  beard  which  grows  from  the  back  of  the 
blossom  ;  the  oat  is  also  remarkable  for  its  graceful  pannicle,  or 
the  manner  in  wnich  its  flowers  grow  upon  their  stalks. 

The  rye  (Secale),  has  two  flowers  within  the  same  husk. 
The  wheat  (  Triticwn),  has  three  flowers  within  the  same  husk ; 
the  interior  valve  of  the  corolla  of  the  wheat  is  usually  beard- 
ed. The  filaments  in  the  rye  and  wheat  are  exsert,  that  is, 
they  hang  out  beyond  the  corolla  ;  from  which  circumstance, 
these  grains  are  more  exposed  to  injury  from  heavy  rains  than 
those  whose  filaments  are  shorter. 

Perhaps,  in  the  whole  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  although 
there  are  many  plants  of  much  greater  brilliancy  of  appear- 
ance, there  are  none  which  are  so  important  to  man  as  the 
grass  family.  Linnaeus,  who  was  distinguished  for  the  liveli- 
ness of  his  fancy,  no  less  than  the  clearness  of  his  reasoning 
powers,  seemed  to  delight  in  tracing  analogies  between  plants 
and  mankind  ;  establishing  among  the  former  a  kind  of  aris- 
tocracy ;  he  called  grasses  the  plebeians  of  the  vegetable  king- 
dom. To  them,  indeed,  belong  neither  brilliancy  of  appear- 

Comparison  of  Linnaeus. 


204  ORDER  DIGYNIA. 

/ 

ance  nor  delicacy  of  constitution ;  numerous,  humble  and  rus- 
tic, and  and  at  the  same  time,  giving  to  man  and  beast  the  sus- 
tenance necessary  to  preserve  life,  the  grasses  may  well  bo 
compared  to  the  unassuming  farmer  and  mechanic,  to  whom 
society  is  indebted  far  more  than  to  the  statesman  and  orator 
for  its  existence  and  prosperity. 

The  grasses  are  supposed  to  include  nearly  one  sixth  part  of 
the  whole  vegetable  world ;  they  cover  the  earth  as  with  a 
green  carpet,  and  furnish  food  for  man  and  beast.  Some  of 
the  grasses  most  valuable  as  furnishing  food  for  cattle,  are 
herds-grass  (Phleum  pralense) ;  and  meadow  grass  (Poo) ; 
orchard  grass  (dactylis) ;  and  oats.  Those  which  are  used  in 
various  ways  as  food  for  man,  are  wheat,  rye,  barley,  and  in- 
dian  corn  ;  this  latter,  botanically  called  ZEA  mays,  although  of 
the  natural  family  of  the  grasses,  having  a  culm-like  stalk  and 
other  distinguishing  characteristics  of  grass-like  plants,  is  placed 
in  the  class  Monoecia,  because  the  stamens  and  pistils  are  sepa- 
rated in  different  flowers,  growing  from  the  same  root.  The 
styles,  long,  slender,  and  exserted,  form  what  is  called  the  silk  : 
they  are  thus  favourably  situated  for  receiving  the  fertilizing 
pollen  which  is  showered  down  from  the  staminate  flowers. 

The  fruit  of  corn,  wheat,  rye,  &c.  is  called  grain.  Grain, 
then,  consists  of  the  seed  with  its  pericarp ;  these  are  not 
easily  distinguished  from  each  other  till  the  grain  is  ground  in. 
to  flour ;  the  pericarp  separating  from  the  seed  then  forms 
what  is  called  the  bran;  and  the  seed,  thejfawr  or  meal. 

The  sugar  cane  (SACCHARUM  officinarum),  is  of  the  grass 
family ;  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  brought  from  the  South  of 
Europe  to  the  West  Indies.  The  stem  or  culm,  which  some- 
times grows  to  the  height  of  twenty  feet,  affords  the  juice  from 
which  the  sugar  is  made. 

The  Bamboo  (ARUNDO  bambos),  of  the  East  Indies,  a  spe- 
cies of  reed  which  is  said  to  attain,  in  some  situations,  the  height 
of  sixty  feet,  is  also  of  this  class. 

The  Sedge  (Carex),  is  a  gramineous  plant,  but  it  bears  stami- 
nate and  pistillate  flowers,  and  is  therefore  placed  in  the  class 
Moncecia.  The  carexes*  constitute  a  very  numerous  family 
of  plants. 

*  The  plural  of  carer,  according  to  the  Latin  termination,  is  carices. 

Grasses  used  as  food  for  cattle  and  man — Zea  mays — Sugar  cane — Bamboo 
—Carex. 


Fig.  105. 


ORDER  DIGYNIA.  205 

Fig.  105  repre- 
sents two  magnified 
flowers  of  the  orchard 
grass  (Dactylis  glo- 
merata*) ;  at  «,  is  a 

/  f  '1 d  calyx't  composed  of 

J\  \ip  two  valves ;  these  are 

compressed,  keeled^ 
acute;  one  valve  is 
shorter  than  the  parts 
of  the  flowers,  the 
other  longer  ;  this  calyx  is  common  to  the  two  flowers :  b  shews 
the  valves  or  parts  of  the  corollas ;  they  are  oblong  and  acute  : 
c  represents  the  stamens,  which  are  three  in  each  flower ;  the 
filaments  are  of  the  length  of  the  corolla  ;  the  anthers  are  two 
forked  or  bifid :  d  is  the  pistil,  having  an  egg-shaped  germ,  and 
two  spreading  and  feathery  styles :  at  e,  is  the  seed,  not  hav- 
ing any  proper  pericarp,  but  enclosed  by  the  two  scales  of  the 
corolla  ;  it  is  single  and  naked. 

Fig.  106. 


*  Glomerata  signifies  a  cluster,  alluding  to  the  crowded  panicles  of  flowers. 

t  The  parts  of  the  calyx,  and  also  of  the  corolla,  are  called  glumes  ;  they  are 
all  much  alike  in  appearance,  being  merely  a  set  of  sheaths,  for  the  purpose  of 
protecting  the  stamens ;  they  are  not  distinguished  by  any  difference  in  colour 
from  the  leaves  or  stem.  The  anthers,  which  are  usually  yellow,  are  the  only 
part  of  the  blossom  of  the  grasses  which  is  coloured. 

t  Resembling  the  keel  of  a  boat. 

18 


206 


CLASS  TETRANDRIA. 


Fig.  106  shews  the  same  plant  in  its  natural  size ;  a,  is  the 
stem,  which  is  a  cylindric  and  jointed  culm.  At  b,  is  the  leaf, 
which  is  long,  narrow,  pointed,  simpk,  and  entire.  At  c,  are 
the  flowers,  which  are  thick,  panicled  and  terminal. 

The  orchard  grass  is  very  common  in  the  New  England 
and  Middle  States. 

Of  all  the  grasses,  the  darnel  (Lolium),  only,  is  poisonous; 
this  seemed  to  have  been  avoided  in  the  days  of  Virgil,  who, 
in  his  "  Pastorals,"  represents  the  shepherds  us  speaking  of  the 
lolium  as  destructive  to  their  flocks. 


Fig.  107. 


CLASS  IV. — TETHANDRIA. 


The  same  number  of  stamens  are 
found  in  the  plants  of  this  class,  as  jn 
those  of  the  13th  class,  Didynamia. 
In  the  fourth  class  the  stamens  are  of 
equal  length,  but  in  the  thirteenth  they 
grow  in  t wo  pairs  of  unequal  length. 


Order  Monogyitiu. 

As  an  example  of  this  order,  may  be  mentioned  the  Hous- 
TONIA  ccerulea,  which  is  known  by  different  common  names ; 
in  some  sections  of  the  country  it  is  called  Innocence,  in  others 
Venus1  Pride,  and  in  some  Blue  Houstonia.  It  is  a  very  deli- 
cate little  flower,  appearing  early  in  the  spring,  in  grassy  fields 
and  meadows  ;  the  colour  varies  from  sky  blue  (which  gives 
its  specific  name  ccerulea)  to  a  pure  white.  The  flower  has  a 
small  calyx,  with  four  divisions;  a  monopetalous  corolla  of  four 
divisions,  which  gives  it  something  the  appearance\of  a  cruci- 
form plant. 

The  common  Plantain  (Plantago),  (See  Fig.  107,  a)  is  found 
here ;  it  is  a  plant  by  no  means  useless,  although  it  exhibits 
nothing  interesting  to  gratify  the  sight.  The  leaves  are  some- 
times used  in  external  applications  for  medicinal  purposes ;  they 
are  also,  when  young  and  tender,  boiled  and  used  for  food  in 
some  parts  of  the  United  States.  The  flowers  of  the  plantain 
grow  on  a  spike ;  they  are  very  small,  but  each  one  has  a  ca- 
lyx and  corolla ;  these  are  both  four-parted  ;  the  filaments  are 


Analysis  of  the  orchard  grass— How  does  the  fourth  class  agree  with,  and 
how  differ  from  the  thirteenth  class  —Houstonia— Plantain. 


ORDER  MONOGYNIA.  207 

very  long,  and  the  pericarp  is  ovate  with  two  cells.     Canary 
birds  are  very  fond  of  the  seeds  of  the  plantain. 

Aggregate  flowers.     We  find  in  this  class  the  aggregate 
flowers  (aggregate),  or  such  as  have  many  flowers  on  the  same 
receptacle  ;  they  have  a  general  resemblance  to  the  compound 
flowers  of  the  class  Syngenesia,  but  differ  from  them  in  having 
but  four  stamens  with  anthers  separate,  while  the  Syngenesious 
plants  have  five  united  anthers.     The  aggregate  flowers  are 
not  often  yellow,  like  many  of  the  compound  flowers,  but  are 
usually  either  blue,  white,  red,  or  purple.     The  Button  bush 
(Cephalanthus),  of  about  five  feet  in  height,  affords  a  good  ex- 
ample  of  the  natural  order  aggregate.     The  inflorescence  is 
white,  appearing  in  heads  of  a  globular  form,  each  consisting  of 
many  little  perfect  florets  ;  each  head  has  its  own  4  cleft  calyx, 
but  there  is  no  general  calyx,  or  involucrum  for  the  whole. 
Only  one  species  of  this  genus,  the  occidentalism  is  known,  and 
this  is  entirely  confined  to  North  America.     The  Teasel  (Dip- 
sacus),  belongs  to  the  aggregate  flowers;  its  inflorescence  is  in 
heads  of  the  form  of  a  cone ;  it  is  furnished  with  narrow,  stiff 
leaves  in  the  wild  Teasel ;  in  the  species  which  is  cultivated 
these  bristly  leaves  are  hooked ;  on  this  account  they  are  used 
by  clothiers  to  raise  a  nap  or  furze  on  woollen  cloth.     The 
Cornus,  so  called  from  a  Latin  word  corww,  a  horn,  on  account 
of  the  hardness  of  the  wood,  is  a  genus  composed  mostly  of 
shrub-like  plants,  with  flowers  growing  in  flat  clusters  or  cymes, 
like  the  elder.     Thejlorida,  a  species  of  Cornus,  often  called 
Box-wood,  sometimes  Dog- wood  tree,  is  a  beautiful  ornament 
of  our  woods.     It  may  be  considered  either  a  large  shrub  or  a 
small  tree  ;  it  grows  from  the  height  of  fifteen  to  thirty  feet. 
Its  real  corollas  are  very  small,  and  are  clustered  together  in 
the  manner  which  is  called,  in  botany,  an  aggregate.     This 
aggregate  of  flowers  is  surrounded  by  that  kind  of  calyx  called 
an  involucrum,  which,  in  this  plant,  consists  of  four  very  large 
leaves,  usually  white,  but  sometimes  of  a  pale  rose  colour  ;  to 
the  latter  circumstance  is  owing  its  specific  name  florida,  or 
florid.     You  would,  no  doubt,  on  the  first  sight  of  this  plant, 
mistake  the  large  leaves  of  the  involucrum  for  the  petals.     At 
Fig.  107,  b,  is  the  representation  of  the  cornus;  the  style  is 
about  the  same  length  as  the  petals  ;  these  are  four  in  number, 
oblong  and  equal. 

At  c,  Fig.  107,  is  the  Cissus,-\  or  false  grape;  its  calyx  is 

*  From  ocddens,  the  west,  being  found  on  the  western  continent. 

t  Mirbel  gives  this  name  to  the  plant  whose  flower  is  here  described,  and 
places  it  in  the  class  Tetrandria.  Eaton,  on  good  authority,  names  it  Ampelop- 
sis,  and  puts  it  in  the  class  Pentandria  ;  although  it  may  occasionally  be  found 

Aggregate  flowers— Cornus. 


208  CLASS  TETRANDRIA. 

very  small  (not.  seen  in  the  cut) ;  the  petals  are  spreading  and 
reflexed ;  the  filaments  are  shorter  than  the  petals,  and  crowned 
with  large  heart-shaped  anthers. 

Another  very  common  genus  of  the  class  Tetrandria,  is  the 
Bed-straw  (Galium),  an  herbaceous  plant,  with  very  small 
white  flowers ;  the  leaves  grow  in  whorls ;  in  different  species, 
the  leaves  thus  clustered  together  stand  around  the  stem  in 
fours,  fives,  sixes  and  eights.  Some  species  exhibit  a  peculiar 
roughness  upon  the  stems  and  leaves.  This  genus,  with  many 
others  of  the  class,  belongs  to  the  natural  order  Stellate*  or 
starry  plants ;  the  leaves  radiating  from  the  stem  as  rays  of 
light  from  a  star. 

Among  the  exotics  of  this  class,  are  the  SANTALUM,  which 
produces  the  sandalwood,  and  the  Madder  (RusiA  tinctoria), 
the  root  of  which  produces  a  beautiful  scarlet  colour.  The 
latter  plant  is  said  to  have  the  singular  property  of  tinging, 
with  its  red  colour,  the  bones  of  the  animals  that  feed  upon  it. 
This  is  one  of  the  starry  plants,  belonging  to  the  family  Stellatac 
of  Linnaeus ;  Jussieu  has  arranged  this,  and  some  of  the  plants 
whose  leaves  grow  in  whorls,  under  his  57th  order,  Rubiacese. 
The  Silver  tree(PnoTEA  argentea),  has  soft  leaves,  resembling 
satin,  of  a  silver  colour.  Another  species  of  Protea,  the  aurea, 
has  gold  coloured  leaves,  which  are  edged  with  scarlet.  Both 
these  trees  are  natives  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  havo 
never  been  found  in  any  other  locality. 

Order  Tetragynia. 

We  find  here  the  holly  (Hex) ;  this  is  an  evergreen,  with  a 
smooth,  greyish  bark,  shining,  thorny  leaves,  whitish  flowers, 
and  scarlet  berries ;  this  plant  is  very  common  in  England  for 
fences  ;  its  verdure  is  not  impaired  by  the  most  severe  winter. 

with  five  stamens,  its  four  petals  and  the  four  divisions  of  its  calyx,  seem  to  in- 
dicate that  the  fifth  stamen  is  but  an  accidental  circumstance  ;  this  seems  to 
have  been  the  opinion  of  Mirbel  and  some  others. 
*  From  >•/»//,/,  a  star. 

Bed-straw— Madder— Protea— Hex. 


ORDER  MONOGYNIA. 


209 


Fig.  108y 


LECTURE  XXV. 

CLASS  V. — PENTANDRIA. 


THE  class  which  we  are  about  to 
examine,  is  said  to  comprehend  more 
than  one  tenth  part  of  all  known  spe- 
cies of  plants.  It  differs  from  the  class 
Syngenesia  in  having  its  jive  stamens 
separate,  while  the  Syngenesious 
plants  have  the  same  number  of  sta- 
mens united  by  means  of  their  an- 
thers. Plants  with  five  stamens, 
including  those  which  have  anthers 
united,  are  said  to  constitute  one  fourth 
part  of  the  vegetable  kingdom. 


Order  Monogynia. 

There  are  six  orders  in  the  class  Pentandria,  the  first  of 
which,  Monogynia,  is  large  and  important.  Here  we  find  the 
41st  natural  order  of  Linnseus,  the  AsperifoUa,  a  name  derived 
from  two  Latin  words,  asper,  rough,  onAjolium,  leaf,  signifying 
rough  leaved  plants.  These  have  monopetalous  corollas,  with 
five  stamens  and  five  naked  seeds.  The  seeds  are  dicotyledons ; 
this  natural  family  is  found  in  the  8th  class  of  Jussieu,  and  by 
him  is  called  boraginece,  from  the  genus  Borago.  "  The  change 
in  the  corolla  of  these  plants,  in  general,  from  a  bright  red  to  a 
vivid  blue  as  the  flower  expands,  apparently  caused  by  the 
sudden  loss  of  some  acid  principle,  is  a  very  curious  phe- 
nomenon."* 

The  Cynoglossum  is  perhaps  as  common  as  any  of  the  asperi- 
folice  or  rough  leaved  plants.  Its  common  name  is  hound's 
tongue,  so  called  from  its  soft  oval  leaves,  which  are  thought 
to  resemble  the  tongue  of  a  dog.  Although  the  Cynoglossum 
is  classed  with  the  rough  leaved  plants,  its  leaves  are  remarka- 
bly soft,  appearing  to  the  touch  like  velvet ;  it  is  about  two  feet 
high,  the  flowers  are  of  a  reddish  purple,  growing  in  panicles. f 
The  Lungwort  (Pulmonaria),  which  also  belongs  to  this  natural 

*  Smith. 

t  It  is  said  that  the  leaves  of  this  plant,  if  strewed  about  apartments  infested 
with  rats  and  mice,  will  expel  these  vermin. 

Class  Pentandria— How  different  from  the  class  Syngenesia — Order  Mono- 
gynia— Describe  the  characters  of  the  family  Asperifolise — Mention  the  prin- 
cipal genera  in  this  family. 

18* 


210  CLASS  PENTANDRIA. 

family,  has  two  species  in  North  America  with  smooth  leaves. 
The  Mouse-ear  (Myosotis),  is  valued  for  its  medicinal  proper- 
ties ;  a  species,  the  arvernis  or  Forget-me-not,  is  an  interesting 
little  blue  flower.  The  Gromwell  (Lithospermum),  is  a  rough 
plant  with  white  flowers ;  the  bark  of  the  plant  contains  so  much 
silex  or  flinty  matter,  as  to  injure  the  sickles  of  the  reapers, 
when  it  grows  in  the  field  with  the  grain.  The  name  Litho- 
spermum, is  from  the  Greek  lithos,  a  stone,  and  sperma,  a  seed, 
in  allusion  to  the  hardness  of  the  seeds.  The  Borago,  which 
gives  its  name  to  Jussieu's  Natural  family,  including  rough 
leaved  plants,  is  an  exotic,  very  common  to  our  gardens.  The 
corolla  is  wheel-shaped,  of  a  beautiful  blue  Colour,  having  its 
throat  closed  with  five  small  protuberances ;  the  same  is  obser- 
vable in  the  cynoglossum  and  some  others  of  this  class ;  the 
stamens  are  attached  to  the  tube  of  the  corolla ;  you  must  take 
off"  the  corolla  carefully  and  you  will  see  both  the  little  scales 
which  choked  up  the  throat  of  the  corolla,  and  the  manner  in 
which  the  five  stamens  grow  to  it. 

The  Lurida,  from  lurid,  signifying  pale  or  livid,  are  in  the 
28th  natural  order  of  Linnaeus  ;  this  order  is  by  Jussieu  inclu- 
ded under  his  41st,  the  Solaneae.  The  general  characters  of 
these  plants  are,  monopetalous  corollas,  of  a  lurid  or  pale  ap- 
pearance ;  five  stamens  attached  to  the  base  of  the  corolla,  and 
alternating  with  its  divisions  ;  the  leaves  are  alternate.  The 
common  Potatoe  (SOLANUM  tuberosvm),  is  of  this  natural  fa- 
mily ;  the  flowers  of  this  plant  are  large  and  the  organs  very 
plain  for  analysis.  There  is  a  peculiarity  in  the  appearance  of 
the  anthers  which  it  is  well  to  notice  ;  they  are  of  an  oblong 
form,  thick  and  partly  united  at  the  top,  forming  a  cone,  and 
instead  of  opening  at  the  side,  as  anthers  usually  do,  they  open 
at  the  top  by  two  pores.  The  potatoe  was  not  known  in 
Europe,  until  after  the  discovery  of  America.  In  the  year 
1597  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  on  his  return  from  this  country,  dis- 
tributed a  number  of  potatoes  in  Ireland,  where  they  became 
numerous,  and  the  cultivation  of  them  soon  extended  into  Eng- 
land. It  is  said  that  the  root  of  the  potatoe  is  white  or  red 
according  to  the  colour  of  the  flower.  The  little  green  balls, 
upon  the  stalks  of  the  potatoe,  are  the  pericarps,  and  contain 
the  seed  ;  but  this  plant  is  usually  produced  from  the  root. 
The  little  knobs  or  eyes  which  you  may  notice  upon  the  pota- 
toes, are  each  one  a  kind  of  germ  or  bud  ;  and  in  planting 
potatoes  the  whole  root  is  not  put  into  the  ground,  but  cut  into 
as  many  pieces  as  there  are  eyes,  each  one  of  which,  produces 

Luridee  or  Lurid  plants — Potatoe. 


ORDER  MONOGYNIA.  211 

a  plant.*  In  the  same  genus  with  the  potatoe,  is  found  the 
Tomato  and  the  Egg  plant.  In  this  natural  family  is  the  DA- 
TURA stramonium,  a  large,  ill  looking,  nauseous  scented  weed, 
with  a  funnel  form,  plaited  corolla,  either  white  or  purple,  with 
broad,  dark  green  leaves  ;  when  the  corolla  falls  off  and  the 
germ  matures,  it  then  becomes  a  large  ovate,  thorny  pericarp, 
often  called  Thorn-apple  ;  it  continues  to  blossom  during  the 
summer,  is  found  by  the  sides  of  roads,  around  old  buildings 
and  waste  grounds.  Yet  even  this  disagreeable  plant  has  an 
important  use  ;  it  is,  on  account  of  its  narcotic,  and  other  ac- 
tive properties,  highly  valuable  in  medicine. 

In  the 'group  of  plants  we  are  now  considering,  is  the  To- 
bacco (NICOTIANA  tdbacum).  This  is  a  native  of  America  ;  it 
was  imported  into  Europe  about  the  middle  of  the  16th  century. 
It  was  presented  to  Catharine  de  Medicis,  Queen  of  France, 
as  a  plant  from  the  New  World  possessing  extraordinary  vir- 
tues. The  generic  name,  Nicotiana,  is  derived  from  Nicot? 
the  name  of  the  person  who  carried  it  to  France.  King  James 
I.  of  England,  had  such  a  dislike  to  the  fumes  of  this  plant,  that 
he  wrote  a  pamphlet,  which  he  called  a  "  Counter  blast  to  To- 
bacco." It  is  highly  narcotic,  the  excessive  use  of  it  produ- 
cing sleep  like  opium.  The  oil  of  tobacco,  when  applied  to  a 
wound,  is  said  to  be  equally  fatal  as  the  poison  of  a  viper. 

The  Mandrake  (ATROPA  mandagora)  was  much  used  by  the 
ancients  as  an  opiate  ;  they  had  many  absurd  notions  respect- 
ing this  plant ;  they  fancied  in  its  roots,  which  are  very  large 
and  of  a  peculiar  appearance,  a  resemblance  to  the  human  form, 
and  thought  that  some  judgment  would  follow  those  who  took 
them  out  of  the  ground.  This  superstition  is  not  unlike  that 
which  is  sometimes  discovered  even  in  the  present  day  by  those 
who  are  afraid  to  sow  fennel,  because  they  say  it  is  "  sowing 
sorrow."  Perhaps  those  very  persons  who  would  thus  fear  to 
perform  acts  so  innocent  as  to  take  a  root  from  the  ground,  or 
to  put  seeds  into  it,  would  have  no  hesitation  in  violating  a 
command  of  God,  or  neglecting  to  perform  their  known  duties. 
The  Atropa  mandagora  must  be  distinguished  from  the 
American  mandrake  ;  the  latter  bears  a  fruit  which  is  pleasant 
to  the  taste  and  perfectly  inoffensive  ;  its  botanical  name  is 
Podophyllum  ;  it  is  found  in  the  class  Polyandria.  You  can 
see  in  this  instance  the  importance  of  botanical  names  being 
given  in  a  language  which  shall  be  the  same  in  all  countries. 

"This  is  more  properly  a  continuation  of  the  plant  than  a  reproduction  ,•  it 
is  observed  that  the  vegetable  thus  continued  appears  in  process  of  time  to  be- 
come degenerated,  and  it  is  necessary  to  renew  the  race  by  reproducing  it  from 
seed. 

Tobacco — Mandrake — American  mandrake. 


212  CLASS  PENTANDRIA. 

The  common  name,  mandrake,  has  been  given  to  two  plants 
essentially  different  ;  but  by  a  uniformity  in  the  scientific 
names,  there  is  no  danger  of  one  being  taken  for  the  other  by 
those  who  know  any  thing  of  botany. 

Along  with  the  Potatoe,  the  Stramonium,  and  the  Atropa, 
we  find  the  Mullein  ( Verbascum),  which  you  must  have  seen 
too  often  to  need  any  description  of  its  general  appearance  ;* 
but  though  its  natural  characters  may  have  so  far  attracted 
your  attention  that  you  know  a  mullein  from  every  other  plant, 
you  may  not  have  examined  its  different  parts  with  a  view  to 
scientific  arrangement :  it  has,  like  all  the  Luridae,  a  five-parted 
calyx,  wheel-shaped  corolla,  with  five  unequal  divisions.  The 
stamens  are  declined,  or  turned  downwards,  bearded,  or  hairy. 
The  capsule  is  two-celled  and  many -seeded.  The  leaves  are 
oblong,  acuminate  and  decurrent  or  with  their  bases  extending 
downwards  around  the  stem ;  they  are  downy  on  both  sides. 
The  flowers  are  arranged  along  their  stem,  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  constitute  what  is  called  a  spike.  The  botanical  name  of 
the  common  mullein  is  VERBASCUM  thapsus ;  a  species  smaller 
and  more  delicate  than  the  common  mullein,  is  often  found  in 
woods ;  this  is  the  VERBASCUM  hlattaria.  This  genus  is  less 
active  in  its  medicinal  properties  than  most  others  of  the  lurid 
family  ;  it  is  said  to  possess  anodyne  properties,  and  to  be 
intoxicating  to  fish.f  We  cannot  at  present  enumerate  all  the 
plants  of  this  extensive  natural  family  (the  Luridae) ;  as  you 
proceed  in  your  analysis  of  plants,  you  will  do  well  to  refer 
them  to  their  natural  orders,  and  thus  you  will  in  time  become 
familiar  with  the  natural,  as  well  as  artificial  classes. 

Having  remarked  upon  the  genera  found  in  the  natural  fami- 
lies AsperifoHcB  and  Lurida,  we  proceed  to  consider  some  other 
genera  of  the  class  Pentandria. 

In  the  family  Lysimachi,  are  several  genera  with  wheel-form 
corollas  ;  the  most  important  genus  in  this  family  is  the  Lysi- 
machia  or  Loose-strife  (See  Fig.  108,  a),  this  is  an  herbaceous 
plant,  very  common  in  June  and  July ;  several  species  of  it  may 
be  found  along  the  banks  of  little  brooks,  and  low  meadow 
grounds.  The  racemosa,  or  cluster-flowered  loose-strife  is 
from  one  to  two  feet  in  height  ;  it  bears  a  profusion  of  fine 
yellow  blossoms,  in  a  lax  or  limber  raceme.  It  sometimes  bears 
bulbs  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves,  and  small  branches.  Theso 
bulbs,  like  the  roots  of  the  crocus  and  onion,  contain  the  rudi- 

*  By  general  appearance,  we  mean,  what  the  French  botanists  call  thsport  of 
the  plant, 
t  Smith. 

Mention  the  botanical  characters  of  the  mullein— Different  species — Ly- 
simachi. 


ORDER  MONOGYNIA.  213 

ments  of  a  plant.  The  St.  John's  wort,  Hypericum,  a  very 
common  and  numerous  genus,  is  in  the  family  Lysimachi. 

In  this  comprehensive  order  of  the  class  Pentandria,  we  find 
the  morning  glory  (Convolvulus),  and  the  genus  Ribes,  which 
contains  the  currant  and  gooseberry.  The  coffee  (Coffea  Ara- 
bica)  is  also  in  this  class  and  order.  This  plant  is  a  native  of 
Arabia ;  it  is  said  to  be  used  to  a  great  extent  by  the  Turks 
and  Arabs,  to  counteract  the  narcotic  effects  of  opium,  which 
they  use  in  large  quantities.  It  is  remarked  by  a  physician, 
that  the  question  is  often  asked,  which  is  the  least  detrimental 
to  health,  tea  or  coffee  ;  he  says,  the  Turks,  who  drink  great 
quantities  of  coffee,  and  the  Chinese,  who  make  equally  as  free 
use  of  tea,  do  not  exhibit  such  peculiar  effects  as  render  it  easy 
to  decide,  whether  they  are,  in  reality,  deleterious  to  the  hu- 
man system. 

The  trumpet-honeysuckle  (honicera),  belongs  to  this  part  of 
the  artificial  system  (Fig.  108,  b)  ;  it  has  a  very  minute,  five- 
cleft  calyx,  which  is  superior  or  above  the  germ  ;  the  corolla  is 
of  one  petal,  and  tubular ;  the  tube  is  oblong ;  the  limb  of  the 
corolla  is  deeply  divided  into  five  revolute  segments,  one  of  which 
seems  separated  from  the  others  ;  the  filaments  are  exserted ; 
the  anthers  are  oblong. 

Before  closing  our  remarks  upon  this  order,  we  will  remind 
you  that  the  wine  grape  is  found  here.  The  general  character 
of  the  grape  (Vitis),  is  a  calyx  five  toothed  ;  petals  connected 
at  the  top  ;  a  five  seeded,  round  pericarp.  The  stamens  and 
pistils  are,  in  some  genera,  dio3cious,  or  on  separate  plants  ;  this, 
according  to  our  principles  of  classification,  would  carry  the 
genus  into  the  class  Dio3cia  ;  but  as  some  species  of  the  genus 
have  perfect  flowers,  containing  five  stamens  and  one  pistil,  and 
as  it  is  never  permitted  to  separate  the  different  species  of  a 
genus,  we  take  the  dioecious  species,  which  are  less  numerous 
than  the  pentandrous,  into  the  fifth  class. 

The  regions  which  produce  the  wine  grape  have  a  mean 
annual  temperature*  of  50  degrees  on  the  northern  border,  and 
59  degrees  on  the  southern.  Lines  of  temperature  have  been 
described  by  Humboldt,  by  remarking  the  peculiar  vegetables 
in  different  countries.  He  has  traced  the  northern  limit  of  the 
wine  grape,  where  the  mean  annual  temperature  is  about  50° 

*  By  mean  annual  temperature,  is  meant  a  medium  between  the  extremes  of 
heat  and  cold.  In  a  climate  where  the  thermometer  in  summer  would  rise  to 
100  degrees,  and  in  winter  sink  to  zero  or  0,  the  medium  would  be  50  degrees  ; 
this  is  probably  not  far  from  the  mean  annual  temperature  of  our  climate.  The 
mean  annual  temperature  at  the  equator  is  reckoned  to  be  about  84  degrees. 

Coffee — Trumpet-honeysuckle — Vitis — Temperature  of  the  regions  which 
produce  the  wine  grape — What  do  you  understand  by  mean  annual  tempera- 
ture l—(See  Note.) 


214  CLASS  PENTANDRIA. 

near  the  latitude  of  Albany,  across  the  United  States  to  the  Pa- 
cific  ocean ;  not  however  in  a  straight  line,  for  climate,  although 
chiefly  dependent  on  latitude,  is  yet  much  modified  by  other 
circumstances ;  and  on  the  western  coast  of  America  we  find 
in  latitude  50°,  a  similar  climate  to  the  43d  degree  of  latitude 
on  the  eastern  coast.  Thus  the  wine  grape  may  grow  in  50° 
of  latitude,  near  the  lakes,  the  Mississippi,  and  Pacific  ocean ; 
while,  in  the  eastern  part  of  New  York  and  New  England, 
it  would  not  thrive  beyond  the  43d  degree  of  latitude. 

We  find,  on  the  other  side  of  the  Atlantic,  the  region  of 
the  wine  grape,  including  Fjsmce,  and  the  southern  countries 
of  Europe,  extending  as  high  as  latitude  50°; 

The  southern  limit  of  the  wine  grape  where  the  mean  an- 
nual temperature  is  about  59°,  is  traced  from  Raleigh,  in  the 
United  States,  in  latitude  35°,  to  Europe,  where  it  passes  be- 
tween  Rome  and  Florence,  in  latitude  44°  ;  this  line  is  the 
boundary  between  the  grape  region  and  that  of  the  olive  and 
fig,  which  you  know,  require  a  higher  temperature  than  the 
grape. 

The  banks  of  the  Rhine  produce  excellent  grapes,  which 
are  brought  down  the  river  in  great  quantities  to  the  seaports. 
The  festival  of  the  Vintage,  or  the  gathering  of  the  grapes, 
which,  like  our  Thanksgiving  season,  is  intended  as  a  mani- 
festation of  gratitude  forjhe  fruits  of  the  earth,  was  celebra- 
ted with  much  joy  by  the  ancient  Romans,  and  is  still  observ- 
ed by  t^he  people  of  Italy  ;  it  occurs  with  them  about  the  be- 
ginning of  September ;  in  France  and  the  south  of  Germany, 
it  is  later. 

The  Fallemian  wine  was  the  most  celebrated  among  the 
Romans  ;  some  of  the  Latin  poets  spoke  of  it  oftener  than  we 
should  expect  from  those,  whose  intellectual  taste  might  seem 
to  elevate  them  above  any  very  great  attention  to  the  gratifi- 
cation of  the  external  senses.  The  number  of  wines  in  use, 
in  the  days  of  Virgil,  was  such,  that  he  said  he  might  as  well 
attempt  to  count  the  sand  on  the  shore,  or  the  billows  of  the 
ocean  in  a  storm,  as  to  make  a  catalogue  of  them. 

The  vines  of  Italy,  are  often  trained  upon  trees,  particular, 
ly  upon  the  lofty  elm.  In  France,  the  vineyards  have  short 
poles,  about  the  length  of  bean  poles.  The  appearance  ex- 
hibited by  a  luxuriant  vineyard  is  truly  rich  and  beautiful ;  of 
those  of  France  and  Italy,  it  may  well  be  said, 

"  The  vine  her  curling  tendrils  shoots, 
Hangs  out  her  clusters,  glowing  to  the  south, 
And  scarcely  wishes  for  a  wanner  sky." 

Which  ia  the  natural  limit  of  the  wine  grape  ? — How  does  the  climate  of  the 
western  coast  of  America  correspond  to  that  of  the  eastern  coast  ? — Crossing 
the  Atlantic,  where  do  we  find  the  northern  and  southern  limits  of  the  wino 
^  ?— Vintage— 4Vines— Vineyards. 


ORDER  MONOGYNIA.  215 

It  is  said,  the  Persian  vine-dressers  endeavour  to  make  the 
vine  run  up  the  wall,  and  curl  over  on  the  other  side,  which 
they  do,  by  tying  stones  to  the  extremity  of  the  tendrils.  A 
writer  remarking  upon  this,  thinks  it  may  illustrate  a  passage 
in  Genesis.  "  Joseph  is  a  fruitful  bough ;  even  a  fruitful  bough 
by  a  well;  whose  branches  run  over  the  wall."  "  The  vine, 
particularly  in  Turkey  and  Greece,  is  frequently  made  to  en- 
twine on  trellises  around  a  well,  where,  in  the  heat  of  the  day, 
whole  families  collect  themselves  and  sit  under  their  shade." 

In  this  class  and  order  is  the  violet  (viola),  a  genus  which 
contains.many  native  species.  The  garden  violet  is  the  viola 
tricolour.  It  has  a  variety  of  common  names,  as  pansy,  hearts- 
ease, &c.  Pansy  is  a  corruption  of  the  French  pense'e,  a 
thought ;  thus  Shakspeare,  in  the  character  of  Ophelia,  says, 

"  There's  rosemary,  that's  for  remembrance  ; 

And  these  are  pansies ; 
'  That's  for  thought." 

Shakspeare  also  calls  the  same  flower  Love  in  idleness.  You 
will  find  the  blue  violet  (viola  ccerulia),  among  the  first  flowers 
of  spring ;  our  meadows  present  a  great  variety  of  beautiful 
and  fragrant  violets. 

Poets  are  very  fond  of  the  Primrose  (Primula),  so  called 
from  primus,  first,  on  account  of  its  early  appearance  in  the 
spring.  .  But  the  primrose  of  the  poets  is  not  a  native  plant 
with  us.  The  cinnamon-rose  is  frequently,  though  improper- 
ly called  primrose.  The  English  cowslip  is  a  species  of  Pri- 
mula, having  the  segments  of  its  corolla  spotted  with  a  rich 
yellow  colour,  which  Shakspeare  seemed  to  suppose  contained 
the  fragrance  of  the  flower.  Thus  in  the  Midsummer  Night's 
Dream ;  the  Fairy  says, 

"  I  serve  the  fairy  queen, 
To  dew  her  orbs  upon  the  green : 
The  cowslips  tall  her  pensioners  be ; 
In  their  gold  coats  spots  you  see ; 
Those  be  rubies,  fairy  favours, 
In  those  freckles  live  their  savours  ; 
I  must  go  seek  some  dew  drops  here, 
And  hang  a  pearl  in  every  cowslip's  ear." 

The  American  cowslip  belongs  to  the  genus  Caltlia,  which 
is  in  the  class  Polyandria. 

Violet— Primrose— Cowslip.  * 


216  CLASS  PENTANDRIA. 

LECTURE  XXVI. 

CLASS  PENTANDRIA — continued. 
Order  Digynia. 

IN  this  order  of  the  fifth  class  is  the  family  Gentiana,  which 
affords  some  delicate  flowers,  as  well  as  medicinal  plants.  The 
fringed  gentian  is  a  beautiful  plant  with  a  blue  flower.  This 
genus  sometimes  presents  an  irregularity  in  the  number  of  sta- 
mens. The  pigweed  (Chenopodium),  notwithstanding  the 
low  esteem  in  which  it  is  usually  held,  you  will  see,  is  dignifi- 
ed with  a  long  and  high  sounding  name.  Shakspeare  says, 
"  A  rose,  by  any  other  name,  would  smell  as  sweet ;"  so,  not- 
withstanding its  great  name,  the  pigweed  is  a  very  uninterest- 
ing plant ;  it  is  grouped  by  natural  characters  with  the  beet 
and  dock,  flowers  which  are  destitute  of  beauty. 

The  Umbellate  plants  which  belong  to  the  order  and  class 
we  are  now  considering,  have  already  been  described  under 
the  12th  class  of  Jussieu's  arrangement.  Parsley,  fennel,  &c. 
belong  to  this  natural  family.  The  water  cow-bane  (CICUTA 
virosa),  grows  in  ponds  and  marshes,  and  is  a  deadly  poison. 
Cows  are  often  killed  in  the  spring  by  eating  it ;  but  as  the 
summer  advances,  the  smell  becomes  stronger,  and  they  care- 
fully avoid  it.  Linnaeus  relates,  that  in  a  tour  made  into  Lap- 
land for  scientific  purposes,  he  was  told  of  a  disease  among 
the  cattle  of  Torneo,  which  killed  a  great  many  of  them  in 
the  spring,  when  they  first  began  to  feed  in  the  pastures.  The 
inhabitants  were  unable  to  account  for  this  circumstance  ;  but 
the  Swedish  botanist,  examining  the  pastures,  discovered  a 
marsh  where  the  CICUTA  virosa  grew  in  abundance ;  he  ac- 
quainted the  people  with  the  poisonous  qualities  of  the  plant, 
and  thus  enabled  them  to  provide  against  the  danger,  by  fencing 
in  the  marsh. 

Among  the  Umbellate  plants  is  the  Poison- Hemlock  (CONI- 
UM  maculalum),  which  has  a  peculiarly  unpleasant,  nauseous 
smell ;  its  stalk  is  large  and  spotted,  from  whence  its  specific 
name  maculatum,  which  signifies  spotted.  This  plant  is  suppo- 
sed to  be  the  poison  so  fatally  administered  by  the  Athenians, 
to  Socrates  and  Phocion. 

Before  we  leave  the  Umbellate  plants,  as  they  are  not  so 
simple  of  analysis  as  many  others,  we  will  present  you  with  a 

Gentianae— Pigweed— Umbellate  planU— Water  Cowbane— Poison  Hem 
lock. 


ORDER  TRIGYNIA. 


217 


drawing,  which  may  assist  you  in  understanding  their  general 
character. 

We  have  here  a  sketch  of  the  Coriander : — 
Fig.  109. 


1.  CALYX  (a),  this  is  of  that  kind  called  an  involucrum ;  the  leaves  which 
you  see  at  the  foot  of  the  universal  umbel,  form  what  is  called  the  general  invo- 
lucrum ;  the  leaves,  which  are  at  the  foot  of  the  partial  umbel,  form  a  partial 
involucrum.    Both  of  these  involucrums  are  pinnatifid  or  have  the  leaves 
divided. 

2.  COROLLA  (6),  this  is  represented  as  magnified;  you  can  see  that  it  has  five 
petals,  inflected  or  bent  inwards. 

3.  STAMENS,  five,  anthers  somewhat  divided. 

4.  PISTILS,  two,  reflected  or  bent  back,  as  may  beseen  on  the  seed  (c),  where 
the  stigmas  are  permanent. 

5.  PERICARP,  is  wanting,  as  in  all  umbellate  plants. 

6.  SEED  (c),is  round,  with  its  two  styles  at  the  summit. 

7.  STEM  (d),  is  herbaceous,  branched. 

8.  LEAVES  (e),  narrow,  pinnatifid. 

9.  FLOWERS,  terminal,  umbelled.* 

The  umbellate  plants,  although  in  some  cases  poisonous, 
supply  us  with  valuable  vegetables  for  food  ;  as  the  parsnip, 
carrot,  and  celery.  The  roots  and  stalks  of  the  Angelica,  in 
Greenland,  where  they  have  but  a  scanty  supply  of  food,  are 
eaten  and  considered  as  a  great  delicacy.  Dill,  fennel,  cori- 
ander and  carraway,  are  used  in  confectionary,  and  are  also 
made  subservient  to  many  valuable  medicinal  purposes. 

*  The  description  of  this  plant  is  given  on  the  authority  of  Nuttall,  who  calls 
it  the  American  coriander,  which  he  says  is  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
Red  River.  The  cultivated  coriander  has  but  a  one  leafed  involucrum. 

Analysis  of  Coriander—Uses  of  the  Umbellate  plants. 
19 


218  CLASS  PENTANDRIA. 

The  milk-weed  (ascJepias)  is  by  many  writers  placed  here ; 
but  as  its  five  stamens  seem  evidently  situated  upon  the  pistil, 
the  genus  is  properly  placed  in  the  fifth  order  of  the  class 
Gynandria. 

Trigynia. 

This  order  contains  the  elder  (Sanibucus),  a  shrub,  which, 
with  its  clusters  of  delicate  white  flowers,  ornaments  the  fields 
during  the  summer.  From  the  appearance  of  the  blossom  you 
might  suppose  it  to  be  umbelliferous  ;  the  stalks  do  at  first  ra- 
diate from  one  common  centre,  but  afterwards  they  are  une- 
qually subdivided  ;  this  arrangajpnt  of  flowers  is  called  a  cyme. 
The  dark  rich  purple  berries  of  tin-  rider,  and  the  peculiarity 
of  its  pithy  stem,  are  among  its  distinguishing  natural  charac- 
ters. 

The  snow-ball  (Viburnum);  has  a  natural  affinity  with  the 
elder  :  the  flowers  in  its  cymes  are  more  thickly  clustered  to- 
gether. Both  are  distinguished  by  their  flat  corollas  ;  which 
,  are  somewhat  like  a  flat,  round  piece  of  paper,  with  five  divi- 
sions notched  on  the  border.  The  only  generic  difference  be- 
tween the  snow-ball  and  the  elder  is,  that  the  former  has  a 
berry,  or  pericarp,  with  one  seed,  the  latter  with  three. 

Tetragynia. 

Here  we  find  the  grass  of  Parnassus  (Parnassia).  This  is 
an  interesting  flower  in  its  appearance ;  its  leaves  are  white, 
and  beautifully  veined  with  yellow;  the  stem  produces  but  one 
flower ;  the  nectaries  are  remarkable  for  their  beauty  and  sin- 
gular appearance ;  they  are  five  in  number,  heart-form,  and 
hollow,  surrounded  with  thirteen  little  threads,  each  one  ter- 
minated with  a  round,  glandular  substance.  The  name  is  said, 
by  an  English  Botanist,*  to  have  arisen  from  the  plant  being  a 
native  of  Mount  Parnassus,  in  Greece,  anciently  considered  as 
the  dwelling  of  the  muses.  It  is  found  in  North  America. 

Pentaprynicu 

In  the  fifth  order,  we  find  the  flax  (Linum),  so  called  from 
a  Celtic  word  tin,  a  thread.  The  flax  has  a  showy,  blue 
flower,  with  an  erect  stem ;  a  field  of  it  in  blossom  presents  a 
very  beautiful  appearance.  The  cultivated  species  is  said  to 
be  an  exotic,  of  Egyptian  origin.  It  is  from  the  liber,  or  inner 
bark  of  the  stem  of  this  plant,  that  all  linen  cloths,  the  finest 
lawn  and  cambric,  are  manufactured.  We  owe  to  it  in  one 
sense  our  literature ;  for  the  paper  of  which  our  books  are 
made,  is  primarily  derived  from  flax.  The  fibres  of  the  stem 

*  Thornton. 

Elder— Snow-ball— Grass  of  Parnassus— Flax. 


CLASS  HEXANDRIA.  219 

are  not  only  thus  important  to  the  comfort  of  man,  by  contribu- 
ting to  his  clothing,  and  to  his  intellectual  improvement,  in  fur- 
nishing a  method  of  disseminating  knowledge,  but  the  seeds  are 
highly  valuable  for  their  oil,  called  lin-seed  oil.  This  is  used 
in,  medicine ;  and  the  delightful  porformances  of  the  artist  are 
executed  by  means  of  colours,  prepared  with  oil  from  the  seed 
of  the  flax,  laid  upon  the  canvass  made  from  the  fibres  of  its 
stems. 

Polygynia. 

The  thirteenth  order  occurs  next  to  the  fifth ;  there  being  no 
plants  in  the  class  Pentandria  with  six,  seven,  and  eight  pistils, 
&c.  until  we  come  tpjthe  yellow  root  (Zanthoriza),  which  is  a 
native  of  the  Southern  States.  It  has  5  stamens,  13  pistils,  no 
calyx,  5  petals,  5  nectaries,  cap'sules  5  seeded ;  the  flowers  are 
purple,  growing  in  panicles.  It  is  a  low  shrub,  with  a  yellow 
root,  sometimes  used  by  dyers. 

Our  investigations  into  the  class  Pentandria  have  necessari- 
ly been  somewhat  tedious,  on  account  of  the  number  and  im- 
portance of  the  plants  which  it  contains.  We  do  not,  how- 
ever, expect  to  make  you  practical  botanists  by  introducing 
to  your  notice  a  few  interesting  plants  ;  this  can  only  be  done 
by  gathering  flowers,  and  examining  them  according  to  those 
rules  of  analysis  which  we  have  endeavoured  to  explain  in  a 
simple  manner.  If  you  study  flowers,  you  will  read  remarks 
upon  them  with  pleasure  and  profit ;  if  not,  definitions  or  in- 
struction will  be  read  with  little  interest  and  little  improve- 
ment. Sciences  may  be  unfolded,  every  facility  which  books 
and  teaching  can  give,  may  be  placed  before  the  youthful 
mind ;  but  that  mind  must  itself  be  active,  or  the  seeds  of 
knowledge  will  no  more  take  root  .and  expand,"  than  the  seeds 
of  plants  would  vegetate  if  thrown  upon  the  bare  surface  of 
a  rock. 


LECTURE  XXVII. 
CLASS  VI. — HEXANDRIA,  AND  CLASS  VII. — HEPTANDRIA. 

OF  all  the  artificial  classes,  none  presents  us  with  so  great 
a  number  of  splendid  genera  as  Hexandria;  most  of  them 
are  distinguished  by  bulbous  roots,  monocotyledonous  seeds,  and 
endogenous  stems ;  the  palms  and  some  other  plants  of  this 
class  have  fibrous  roots  in  connection  with  the  last  two  char- 

Zanthoriza— Importance  of  the  class  Hexandria— Three  important  natural 
characters  which  distinguish  many  plants  of  this  class. 


220  CLASS  HEXANDRIA. 

acters  ;  these  are  inseparable  ;  the  nature  of  the  stem,-or  the 
manner  of  its  growth  depending  on  the  structure  of  the  seed. 
The  extensive  family  Liliaca,  including  the  lily,  tulip, 
Crown-imperial,  &c.  is  one  which  presents  itself  first  in  con- 
sidering this  class. 

You  have  already  been  made  ac- 
quainted with  the  lily,  as  it  was  one  of 
the  first  flowers  you  were  taught  to 
,  analyze;  and,  in  a  brief  view  of  the 
liliaceous  flowers,  you  have  been  pre- 
sented with  the  most  striking  charac- 
ters belonging  to  this  family,  which  we 
might,  following  the  example  of  great 
names,  call  an  "  illustrious"  race. 
Pliny  says,  the  "  lily  is  next  in  nobility  to  the  rose."* 
naeus  called  the  liliaceous  flowers  "  Nobles  of  the  vege 
kingdom ;"  he  also  called  the  palm  trees  "  Princes  of  India." 
In  the  class  Hexandria,  the  symmetrical  ratio  between  the 
number  of  stamens  and  the  division  of  the  other  parts  of  the 
flower,  is  generally  to  be  found.  In  the  spiderswort,  (Trade- 
scantia),  which  has  6  stamens,  we  find  the  corolla  3  petalled, 
calyx  3  leaved,  and  capsules  3  celled.  In  the  third  class, 
which  has  3  stamens,  the  divisions  are  often  6. 

In  the  lily,  which  has  6  stamens,  there  are  6  petals  ;  3  of 
these  are  exterior,  3  interior ;  the  capsule  is  3  sided,  with  3 
cells,  and  3  valves  ;  the  seeds  are  arranged  in  6  rows.  This 
proportion  of  numbers  seems  to  forbid  the  idea  that  this  plant 
grew  up  without  the  agency  of  any  designing  mind.  We  are 
not  always  to  expect  the  same  symmetry  in  plants  as  has  been 
here  remarked.  It  is  in  the  natural,  as  in  the  moral  world, 
that,  although  every^  where  around  us,  we  see  such  proofs  of 
order  and  system,  as  manifest  the  superintending  care  of  one 
Almighty  Being ;  yet  there  are  irregularities  which  we  can- 
not comprehend  :  but  although  we  may  admire  the  order,  we 
are  not  to  say  that  even  what  seems  disorder  is  formed  with- 
out a  plan. 

*  "  Lilium  nobilitate  proximum  est."    A  French  poet,  in  the  following  lines, 
gives  the  lily  a  rank  above  the  rose. 

"  Noble  fils  du  soleil,  le  lys  majestueux, 
Vers  1'astre  paternal  dont  il  brave  les  feui 
Eleve  avec  orgueil  sa  tete  souveraine  ; 
II  est  roi  des  fleurs  dont  la  rose  est  la  reine." 
The  white  lily  is  here  meant ;  this  is  particularly  admired  by  the  French. 

Ialiace»— Symmetry  of  parts  in  the  flowers  of  this  class. 


ORDER  MONOGYNIA.  221 

*'  Shall  little  haughty  ignorance  pronounce 
His  works  unwise,  of  which  the  smallest  part 
Exceeds  the  narrow  visions  of  his  mind  ?" 

The  tulip  has  no  style,  but  its  three  parted  stigma  is  attach- 
ed to  a  three  cornered  germ.  The  corolla  of  the  tulip  is  more 
expanded  at  the  base  than  that  of  the  lily.  The  stem  of  the 
tulip  is  never  more  than  one  flowered,  while  that  of  the  lily 
usually  has  a  number  of  flowers.  Some  native  species,  of  the 
tulip  are  found  in  North  America,  but  those  which  you  see  in 
gardens  are  exotics.  In  no  plant  is  the  variation  made  by 
culture  greater  than  in  this ;  it  is  said,  that  of  one  single  spe- 
cies, Tulipa  gesneriana,  one  thousand  and  one  hundred  varie- 
ties are  cultivated  in  Holland.  About  the  middle  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  the  rage  for  tulips  was  so  great,  that  some 
Vere  sold  for  four  thousand  dollars,  and  one  variety,  called  the 
ice-roi,  for  ten  thousand  dollars ;  but  this  extraordinary 
traffic  was  checked  by  the  law  that  no  tulip  or' other  flower 
should  be  sold  for  a  sum  exceeding  one  hundred  and  seventy- 
five  dollars. 

The  amateurs  of  this  flower  may  truly  be  said  to  have  had 
the  tulip  mania,  to  have  rendered  such  a  law  necessary.  The 
Crown-imperial  is  truly  a  majestic  flower,  and  presents,  in  the 
regularity  of  its  parts,  the  curious  appearance  of  its  nectaries, 
and  the  liquid  secretion  which  takes  place  in  them,  facts  of 
great  interest  both  to  the  departments  of  botanical  classifica- 
tion and  physiology.  But  we  find  in  the  foetid  odour  of  this 
splendid  flower,  a  circumstance  which  leads  us  to  prefer,  as  an 
ornament  for  our  parlours,  or  as  a  gift  to  a  friend,  the  humble 
mignionette  or  the  lowly  violet. 

Besides  the  liliaceous  plants,  which  include  much  of  the 
beauty  of  our  gardens,  we  find  in  the  first  order  of  the  6th 
class,  several  genera  which  belong  to  the  natural  family  Ensa- 
tee,  having  sword-form  leaves ;  as  the  spiders  wort,  a  beautiful 
flower  whose  symmetry  we  have  already  remarked.  Many 
tenderly  cherished  exotics  have  less  elegance  than  this  neg- 
lected American  plant.  The  snow-drop,  which  is  one  of  the 
earliest  flowers  of  spring,  is  of  the  same  family. 

It  may  excite  your  astonishment  to  know,  that  in  the  class 
and  order  with  so  many  splendid  and  beautiful  flowers  are  the 
onion  (Allium),  and  the  bulrush  (Juncus).  But  you  must  re- 
collect that  in  this  artificial  system,  if  a  flower  has  six  separate 
stamens  and  one  pistil,  it  is  entitled  to  a  place  in  the  6th  class 
and  1st  order,  even  though  this  should  place  a  very  humble 
plant  by  the  side  of  the  most  gaudy  flower. 

The  onion  belongs  to  a  family  of  monocotyledonous  plants, 

Tulip — Ensatee— Plants  of  different  appearances  found  in  the  same  classes. 

19* 


222  CLASS  HEXANDRIA. 

which  Jussieu  calls  Asphodeli  (from  asphodel,  a  spear).  The 
Asphodel  which  gives  name  to  the  family,  was  among  the  an- 
cients  a  funereal  plant ;  it  was  made  to  grow  around  the  tombs ; 
and  a  belief  prevailed  that  the  manes  of  the  departed  were 
nourished  by  its  roots.  An  inscription  upon  a  very  ancient 
tomb,  commences  thus,  "  /  am  nourished  by  the  Asphodel." 
This  plant  was  supposed  to  grow  in  abundance,  upon  the  bor- 
ders of  the  infernal  regions  of  the  ancient  poets.  Fig.  110, 
represents  a  flower  of  the  Asphodel  family  (Eucomis). 

The  genus  Scilla  is  an  exotic,  containing  the  squill,  a  medi- 
cinal plant,  and  the  hare-bell  of  English  poets ;  the  latter  is 
SCILLA  nutansy  or  nodding  ;  it  abounds  in  the  woods  and  glens 
of  Scotland,  and  has  a  soft  and  elastic  scape.  Thus  Scott 
says  of  the  Lady  of  the  Lake  ; 

"  A  foot  more  light,  a  step  more  true, 
Ne'er  from  the  heath-flower  dashed  the  dew  ; 
E'en  the  slight  hare-bell  raised  its  head 
Elastic,  from  her  airy  tread." 

The  flower  which  we  term  the  hare-bell  is  the  Campanula 
rotundifolia ;  this  is  very  common  near  water-falls,  and  upon 
rocks  in  other  situations.  The  barberry  (Berberis),  is  found 
common  in  New  England  ;  its  stamens  possess  an  unusual  de- 
gree of  irritability ;  they  recline  upon  the  petals,  but  upon 
touching  the  base  of  the  filaments  by  any  substance,  they  in- 
stantly spring  towards  the  pistil. 

You  may  have  observed  that  although  we  have  remarked 
upon  the  beauty  of  some  flowers  to  be  found  in  this  class, 
nothing  has  been  said  of  their  utility ;  the  truth  is,  that  their 
beauty,  as  is  too  often  the  case  with  external  beauty,  constitutes 
their  chief  merit.  When  we  compare  the  advantages  which 
the  world  derives  from  the  costly  race  of  showy  tulips  with 
the  utility  of  the  humble  flax,  we  feel  that  though  we  may  ad- 
mire the  one,  reason  would  teach  us  to  prefer  the  other.  You 
may  from  this,  derive  a  moral  lesson,  which  may  suggest  to 
your  minds  some  truths,  applicable  to  human  beings  as  well  as 
flowers. 

The  genus  Convallaria  presents  many  delicate  and  interest- 
ing species.  The  flowers  of  some  are  funnel-shaped,  and  such 
are  usually  called  Solomon's  seal.  The  garden  Solomon's 
seal  is  very  common.  This  name  is  supposed  to  have  been 
taken  from  certain  marks  on  its  roots,  resembling  the  impres- 
sions made  by  a  seal.  It  has  been  much  celebrated  for  medi- 
cinal properties.*  The  lily  of  the  valley  belongs  to  the  genus 
Convallaria ;  its  corolla  is  bell-form. 

*  Gerard,  a  very  ancient  botanist,  has  the  following  curious  passage.    "The 

Asphodeli— Scilla- Hare-bell— Barberry— Flowers  of  this  class  more  re- 
markable for  beauty  than  utility —Convallaria. 


CLASS  HEPTANDRIA.  223 

In  the  first  order  of  the  sixth  class  are  the  Aloes  and  the  Fan- 
palm,  the  fronds  of  which  are  of  immense  ,size. 

We  shall  close  this  lecture  by  a  few  examples  of  the  re- 
maining  orders  of  the  class  Hexandria,  and  a  view  of  the 
very  small  class  Heptandria. 

Digynia. 

We  here  find  but  one  genus,  Rice  (Oryza) ;  this  belongs 
to  the  family  o£  grasses,  which  are  mostly  found  in  the  class 
Triandria,  but  having  six  Stamens,  this  plant  is  separated  by 
the  artificial  system  from  those  to  which  it  is  allied  by  natural 
characters.  No  plant  in  the  world  appears  of  such  general 
utility  as  an  article  of  food  as  this.  It  is  the  prevailing  grain 
of  Asia,  Africa,  the  southern  parts  of  America,  and  is  exported 
into  every  part  of  Europe. 

Trigynia. 

.  Here  we  find  the  genus  Rumex,  which  contains  the  dock 
and  sorrel ;  they  have  no  corolla,  but  the  six  stamens  and 
three  pistils  are  surrounded  by  a  six  leaved  calyx. 

CLASS  VII. — HEPTANDRIA. 

Monog-ynia. 

The  first  order  of  this  class  contains  the  chick-winter-green 
(Trientalis) ;  this  plant  has  a  calyx  with  7  leaves,  corolla  7 
parted.  One  species  of  it  is  said  to  defend  its  stamens  against 
injury  from  rain,  by  closing  its  petals  and  hanging  down  its 
head  in  wet  weather. 

The  Horse-chesnut  (^Escu- 
lus),  (Fig.  Ill),  is  a  native  of 
the  northern  part  of  Asia,  and 
was  introduced  into  Europe 
about  the  year  1500  ;  it  was  not 
probably  brought  to  America 
until  sometime  after  the  settle- 
ment of  this  country  by  Euro- 
peans. It  is  a  small  tree  which 
produces  white  flowers,  variega- 
ted with  red,  crowded  together  in  the  form  of  a  pannicle ;  the 
whole  resembling  a  pyramid.  In  appearance  it  is  very  showy, 

root  of  Solomon's  seal  stamped,  while  it  is  fresh  and  greene,  and  applied,  taketh 
'away  in  one  night,  or  two  at  the  most,  any  bruse,  black  or  blew  spots  gotten  by 
fals,or  women's  wilfulness,  in  stumbling  upon  their  hasty  husband's  fists,  or 
such  like." 

Aloes  and  Fan-palm — Order  Digynia — Trigynia — Trientalis — Horse  chesnut. 


224  CLASS  HEPTANDRIA, 

the  more  agreeable  to  us  as  we  have  so  few  trees  whose  flowers 
are  conspicuous.  The  blossom  is  very  irregular  in  its  parts, 
that  is,  its  number  of  other  divisions  do  not  correspond  with 
the  usual  number  of  stamens  ;  the  stamens,  however,  vary  as 
to  number.  The  seeds  in  form  have  a  resemblance  to  ches- 
nuts,  but  their  taste  is  bitter.  A  very  large  species,  the  pallida, 
having  pale  flowers,  is  a  native  of  the  southern  and  western 
states.  The  horse-chesnut  exhibits  in  its  buds,  in  a  very  con- 
spicuous manner,  the  woolly  envelope  which  surrounds  the 
young  flowers,  the  scales  which  cover  this  envelope,  and  the 
varnish  which  covers  the  whole.  The  wood  of  this  tree 
affords  a  good  subject  for  studying  the  formation  and  growth 
of  woody  or  exogenous  stems. 

Tetragynia. 

There  is  but  one  plant  with  four  pistils  known  in  the  class 
Heptandria  ;  this  alone  constitutes  the  fourth  order ;  its  com- 
mon  name  is  lizard's  tail  (Saururus)-,  it  has  arrow  shaped  leaves, 
flowers  destitute  of  a  corolla,  and  growing  upon  a  spike  ;  it  is 
to  be  found  in  stagnant  waters. 

Heptagynia. 

The  septas,  a  native  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  is  considered 
as  the  most  perfect  plant  in  this  class  ;  it  has  7  stamens,  7  pis- 
tils, 7  petals,  a  calyx  7  parted,  and  7  germs  (one  to  each  pistil), 
which  germs  become  7  capsules,  or  seed  vessels. 

Heptandria  is  the  smallest  of  all  the  classes  ;  we  do  not  find 
here,  as  in  most  of  the  other  classes,  any  natural  families  of 
plants ;  but  the  few  genera  which  it  contains  not  only  differ  in 
natural  characters  from  other  plants,  but  seem  to  have  no 
general  points  of  resemblance  among  themselves. 

Tetragynia— Order  Heptagynia— Remarks  upon  the  class  Heptandria. 


ORDER  MONOGYNIA.  225 

LECTURE   XXVIII. 

CLASS  VIII. — OCTANDRIA.     CLASS  IX. — ENNEANDRIA. 

Monoffynia. 

Fig.  112.  The  eighth  class,  although  not  large,  contains 
some  beautiful  and  useful  plants.  One  of  the  first 
which  we  meet  with  in  this  class,  is  the  scabish 
(CEnotJiera),  sometimes  called  evening  primrose. 
Many  species  of  this  are  common  to  our  country  ; 
I  some  grow  to  the  height  of  five  feet.  The  flow- 
ers are  generally  of  a  pale  yellow,  and  in  some 
species  they  remain  closed  during  the  greater 
part  of  the  day,  and  open  as  the  sun  is  near  setting. 
This  process  of  their  opening  is  very  curious,  the 
calyx  suddenly  springs  out  and  turns  itself  back 
quite  to  the  stem,  and  the  petals  being  thus  re- 
leased from  the  confinement  in  which  they  had 
been  held  by  the  calyx,  immediately  expand ;  there  are  few 
flowers  which  thus  hail  the  setting  sun,  though  many  salute 
it  at  its  rising.  The  flowers  of  the  (Enothera  are  thickly 
clustered  on  a  spike,  and  it  is  said  that  "  each  one  after  ex- 
panding once,  fades,  and  never  again  blossoms."*  This  sin- 
gular flower  has  been  observed  in  dark  nights  to  throw  out  a 
light  resembling  that  of  phosphorus.  The  regularity  of  the 
parts  of  this  flower  renders  it  a  good  example  of  the  eighth 
class ;  the  different  parts  of  its  corolla  preserve  in  their  divi- 
sions the  number  four,  or  half  the  number  of  stamens.  It  has 
4  large  yellow  petals,  the  stigma  is  4  cleft,  capsule  4  celled,  4 
valved,  the  seeds  are  affixed  to  a  4  sided  receptacle. 

The  evening  primrose  belongs  to  a  family  of  dicotyledonous 
plants  called  Onagrse  ;f  the  characters  of  which  are  four  pe- 
tals above  the  calyx  ;  stamens  inserted  in  the  same  manner, 
and  equal  or  double  the  number  of  petals ;  the  fruit  a  capsule 
or  berry. 

To  the  same  natural  family  as  the  (Enothera  belongs  the 
willow  herb  (Epilobium),  a  very  branching  plant  with  red 
flowers,  and  feathery  seeds. 

The  cranberry  (Oxycoccus),  also  belongs  to  the  same  family, 
but  having  ten  stamens,  is  in  the  class  Decandria  ;  in  this  case, 
a  natural  affinity  is  made  to  yield  to  the  artificial  system.  The 
fruit  of  the  cranberry  consists  of  large  scarlet  berries,  which 

*  W.  Barton. 

t  The  common  name  for  the  evening  primrose  is,  in  French,  onagref. 

Evening  Primrose— Willow  herb— Cranberry. 


226  CLASS  OCTANDRIA. 

contain  an  agreeable  acid.  The  flowers  are  white,  having  a 
4  toothed  calyx,  and  corolla  4  parted.  It  is  found  in  swamps 
in  various  parts  of  North  America. 

The  Ladies'-ear-drop  (Fuschsia),  (See  Fig.  112),  is  a  beau- 
tiful  exotic.  It  has  a  funnel-form  calyx,  of  a  brilliant  red 
colour ;  the  petals  are  almost  concealed  by  the  calyx  ;  they  are 
purple,  and  rolled  round  the  stamens,  which  are  long,  extend- 
ing themselves  beyond  the  coloured  calyx.  This  plant  is  a 
native  of  tyexico  and  South  America,  except  one  species 
brought  from  the  Island  of  New  Zealand.  Ten  species  are  said 
by  horticulturists  to  be  cultivated,  but  some  of  them  are  pro- 
bably  rather  varieties  than  distinct  species. 

The  heath*  (Erica),  which  contains  many  hundred  species, 
is  not  known  to  be  indigenous  to  this  country ;  fifty  species  are 
said  to  have  been  introduced.  The  common  heath  has  bell- 
form  flowers,  small  and  delicate,  with  the  colour  pink  or  vary- 
ing into  other  colours  ;  the  flowers  intermixed  with  the  delicate 
green  of  its  leaves  produce  a  fine  effect.  The  kind  of  soil 
necessary  to  the  growth  of  the  heath,  is  peat  earth ;  this  is 
very  common  in  Engjahd  and  Scotland,  in  which  countries  this 
plant  abounds.  The  branches  are  used  in  England  for  heating 
ovens  and  making  brooms.  In  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  the 
poor  make  use  of  it  to  thatch  the  roofs  of  their  cottages,  and 
their  beds  are  also  made  of  it.  The  field  in  which  this  plant 
grows  is  termed  a  heath  or  heather. 

"  The  Erica  here, 

That  o'er  the  Caledonian  hills  sublime, 
Spreads  its  dark  mantle,  where  the  Bees  delight 
To  seek  their  purest  Honey,  flourishes  ; 
Sometimes  with  bells  like  Amethysts,  and  then 
Paler,  and  shaded,  like  the  maiden's  cheek 
With  gradual  blushes  ;  other  while,  as  white 
As  frost  that  hangs  upon  the  wintry  spray." 

The  Daphne  is  a  rare  plant ;  one  species  is  called  the  Lace- 
bark  tree,  from  the  resemblance  of  its  inner  bark  or  liber  to 
net-work  or  lace.  This  bark  is  very  beautiful,  consisting  of 
layers  which  may  be  pulled  out  into  fine  white  web,  three  or 
four  feet  wide ;  this  is  sometimes  used  for  ladies'  dresses  and 
may  even  be  washed  without  injury.  Charles  I.  of  England, 
was  presented  by  the  governor  of  Jamaica  with  a  cravat  made 
of  this  web.  The  plant  is  a  native  of  the  West  Indies. 

The  Nasturtion  (TropO3olum),  is  a  very  commonly  cultiva- 
ted exotic.  It  has  not  a  regularity  of  parts  ;  the  divisions  of 
the  corolla  and  calyx  are  not  four  or  eight,  which  we  might 

*  The  term  heath  is  said  to  have  originated  from  an  old  Saxon  word,  alluding 
to  the  heat  which  the  plant  affords  as  fuel. 

Ladies'  Ear  drop— Heath— Lace  bark  tree— Nasturtion. 


CLASS  ENNEANDRIA.  227 

expect  from  its  eight  stamens,  but  consistsiof  five  petals.  The 
fruit  consists  of  three  seeds  ;  these  are  used  for  pickles.  "  The 
generic  name  (Tropoeolum),  signifies  a  trophy  plant;  this  al- 
ludes to  its  use  for  decorating  bowers,  and  the  resemblance  of 
its  peltate  leaves  to  shields,  as  well  as  of  its  flowers  to  golden 
helmets,  pierced  through  and  stained  with  blood."* 

The  Second  Order  of  the  8th  class  has  few  plants  of  im- 
portance. 

The  Third  Order  contains  the  Buckwheat  (Polygonum), 
which  is  classed  in  the  same  natural  order  as  the  dock,  pig- 
weed,  &c.  "  having  flowers  destitute  of  beauty  and  gay  colour- 
ing." The  genus  is  extensive,  containing  many  plants  which 
are  considered  as  common  weeds ;  the  species,  fagopyrum,  is 
the  true  Buckwheat,  the  use  of  which  as  an  article  Of  food,  is 
too  well  known  to  need  a  remark.  This  plant  is  variable  in 
its  number  of  stamens  ;  the  fruit  is  one  angular  seed. 

In  the  Fourth  Order  of  this  class  is  a  very  rare  plant  called 
Paris.  It  is  said  to  have  been  named  after  Paris,  a  prince  of 
ancient  Troy,  who  was  remarkable  for  his  beauty.  In  every 
part  of  the  flower  there  is  the  most  perfect  regularity  ;  the 
numbers  four  and  eight  prevailing  in  every  division.  It  has  8 
stamens,  4  pistils,  4  petals,  a  4  leaved  calyx,  a  4  sided  and  4 
celled  pericarp,  which  contains  8  seeds,  and  4  large  spreading 
leaves,  at  a  little  distance  below  the  flower.  The  colour  of  the 
whole  is  green. 

CLASS  IX. — ENNEANDRIA. 

Monogynia. 

Fig.  113.  This  is  also  a  very  small  class.     In 

the  First  Order  we  find  the  genus  lau- 
rus,  which  includes  the  cinnamon,  bay, 
sassafras,  camphor,  spice  bush,  &c. 
The  bay  (laurus  nobilis),  is  a  native  of 
Italy  ;  the  Romans  considered  it  a  fa- 
vourite  of  the  Muses.  The  emperor 
Tiberius  wore  it  not  only  as  a  trium. 
phal  crown,  but  as  a  protector  against 
thunder ;  as  it  was  thought  that  Jupiter 
had  a  particular  regard  for  the  plant. 
The  laurel  as  well  as  the  olive  was 
considered  as  an  emblem  of  peace  ;  it 
was  sometimes  called  laurus  pacifera,  the  peace-making  laurel, 

*  Sir  J.  E.  Smith. 

Second  Order— Third  Order— Fourth  Order— Class  Enneandria— Different 
species  of  the  genus  Laurus,  as  the  bay,  camphor,  cinnamon,  sassafras,  &c. 


228  CLASS  ENNEANDRIA. 

If  its  branches  were  carried  among  contending  armies  it  was 
a  signal  for  the  cessation  of  arms.  Poets  crowned  with  laurel 
were  called  laureates.  Camphor  is  the  produce  of  the  laurus 
camphora,  a  large  tree  which  grows  in  Japan :  it  is  said  that  a 
species  of  this  plant  has  been  discovered  in  Georgia.  "  The 
LAURUS  cinnamomum  is  a  tree  which  grows  to  the  height  of 
twenty  feet ;  it  sends  out  numerous  branches  which  are  crown- 
ed with  a  smooth  bark.  The  leaves  are  of  a  bright  green, 
standing  in  opposite  pairs.  The  petals  are  six,  of  a  greenish 
white  colour.  The  fruit  is  a  pulpy  pericarp  enclosing  a  nut. 
This  tree  is  a  native  of  Ceylon,  where  it  grows  very  common 
in  the  woods  and  hedges.  The  imported  cinnamon  is  the  inner 
bark  (liber)  of  the  tree  ;  it  is  remarkable  that  the  leaves,  fruit 
and  root  all  yield  oil  of  very  different  qualities.  That  produ- 
ced from  the  leaves  is  called  the  oil  of  cloves ;  that  obtained 
from  the  fruit  is  of  a  thick  consistence,  very  fragrant,  and  is 
made  into  candles  for  the  use  of  the  king ;  the  bark  of  the  roots 
affords  an  aromatic  oil  called  the  oil  of  camphor.  "  The  Sas- 
safras tree  (laurus  sassafras)  is  a  native  American  plant ;  when 
first  introduced  into  Europe,  it  sold  for  a  great  price,  the  oil 
being  highly  valued  for  medicinal  uses.  It  grows  on  the  bor- 
ders of  streams  and  in  woods  ;  it  is  often  no  larger  than  a 
shrub  ;  its  flowers  are  yellow,  its  fruit  blue  berries.  The  LAU- 
BUS  benzoin  has  scarlet  berries,  and  is  an  aromatic  plant."* 

Fig.  113,  a,  represents  a  flower  of  the  Butomus  (flowering 
rush),  which  belongs  to  the  class  and  order  we  are  now  con- 
sidering. 

The  Second  Order  contains  no  remarkable  plants. 

Trigynia. 

The  Third  Order  presents  us  with  but  one  genus,  which  of 
itself  renders  the  order  important ;  it  is  the  Rhubarb  (Rheum) : 
in  one  species  the  RHEUM  tartaricum;  the  leaves  are  acid,  and 
on  this  account,  when  young,  are  used  for  making  pies ;  this  is 
a  native  of  Tartary,  but  now  common  in  our  gardens.  The 
RHEUM  palmatum  is  the  plant  which  produces  the  medicinal 
rhubarb ;  this  is  obtained  from  the  roots,  which  are  thick,  fleshy 
and  yellow.  This  plant  is  cultivated  in  England,  and  is  remark- 
able for  the  rapidity  of  its  growth.  An  English  writer*  asserts 
that  its  stem  has  been  known  to  grow  more  than  eleven  feet  in 
three  months ;  that  some  of  its  leaves  were  five  feet  in  circum- 
ference ;  that  the  root  also  grows  to  a  great  size ;  and  that  some 
had  been  carried  to  England  which  weighed  more  than  seventy 
pounds. 

*  Woodville. 

Order  Trigynia— Different  species  of  Rhubarb. 


CLASS  DECANDRIA.  229 

At  Fig.  113,  J,  is  a  flower  of  the  genus  Rheum;  Mirbel 
represents  it  with  six  styles,  as  seen  in  the  cut ;  this  would  carry 
the  plant  into  the  order  Hexagynia,  but  as  most  botanists  place 
it  in  the  order  Trigynia,  we  have  described  it  here. 

We  have  now  closed  our  consideration  of  the  ninth  class. 
You  will  recollect  that  our  lecture  commenced  with  the  eighth 
class,  which  we  found,  though  not  large,  to  be  an  interesting 
one.  The  ninth,  with  the  exception  of  two  genera,  laurus  and 
rheum,  presented  few  considerations  of  importance  ;  the  ninth, 
the  seventh,  and  first,  are  among  the  smallest  of  the  artificial 
classes. 

We  have  dwelt  somewhat  at  length  upon  exotics,  because 
they  are  seldom  described  in  botanical  works  in  common  use. 
If  you  become  interested  in  the  study  of  plants,  you  will  natu- 
rally wish  to  know  something  about  those  which  you  are  in 
the  habit  of  using  for  food  or  medicine,  or  to  which,  as  in  the 
laurel  of  the  ancients,  allusions  are  often  made  in  the  books 
which  you  read. 

It  is  important,  however,  for  you  to  seek  for  a  practical 
knowledge  of  botany  from  the  actual  observation  of  our  own 
native  plants ;  to  find  them  in  their  own  homes,  in  the  clefts  of 
rocks,  by  the  side  of  the  brooks,  and  in  the  shady  woods  ;  it  is 
there  you  will  find  nature  in  her  unvitiated  simplicity.  We  do 
not  go  to  the  crowded  city  to  find  men  exhibiting,  without  dis- 
guise, the  feelings  of  the  heart.  The  flower  transplanted  from 
its  rural  abodes,  though  not  a  moral  agent,  and,  therefore,  in- 
capable of  moral  transformation  ;  yet  exhibits,  in  the  splendid 
green  house,  a  physical  metamorphosis  not  less  remarkable  than 
the  moral  change  which  luxury  too  often  produces  upon  the 
character  of  man. 


LECTURE  XXIX. 

CLASS   X. — DECANDRIA. 

PLANTS  of  this  class  have  ten  stamens,  but  this  circumstance 
alone  would  not  distinguish  them  from  some  of  the  other  classes ; 
the  number  of  stamens  must  not  only  be  ten,  but  these  must  be 
distinct  from  each  other ;  that  is,  neither  united  together  by 
their  filaments  below,  nor  by  their  anthers  above.  Some  of 
the  classes  which  are  to  follow,  viz.  Monadelphia,  Diadelphia, 
Gynandria,  and  the  two  classes  with  stamens  and  pistils  on 
separate  flowers,  may  also  have  ten  stamens;  but  circum- 

Remarks  upon  some  of  the  classes  —Knowledge  of  exotics  desirable — Flowers 
in  their  native  situations— Class  Decandria. 

20 


230  CLASS  DECANDRIA. 

stances  respecting  the  situation  of  these  organs  distinguish 
these  classes  from  each  other. 

Fig.  114.  Monogynia. 

In  the  first  order  of  the  tenth  class 
we  find  some  plants  with  papilionace- 
ous or  butterfly  shaped  corollas  ;  these, 
because  their  filaments  are  not  united, 
are  separated  from  the  natural  family 
to  which  they  belong,  and  which  arc 
mostly  in  the  class  Diadelphia.  Among 
those  which  are  thus  removed  from  the 
class  where,  from  their  general  ap- 
pearance, they  might  have  been  looked 
for,  is  the  wild  indigo  (Baptisia),  a 

handsome  plant  wiih  yellow  flowers, 

two  or  three  feet  in  height,  and  very  branching ;  the  stem  and 
leaves  are  of  a  blueish  green.  This  is  found  in  dry  sandy 
woods ;  it  has  been  used  as  a  substitute  for  indigo. 

The  wild  pea  (Cassia)  is  another  genus  of  the  papilionace- 
ous tribe.  It  has  several  species,  one  of  which  is  called  the 
American  senna  (CASSIA  marylandica)  on  account  of  its  medi- 
cinal qualities.  Another  species  is  CASSIA  -nictitatis,  with  very 
small  yellow  flowers,  s-nd  beautiful  pinnate  leaves,  which  re- 
main folded  at  night;  it  shrinks  back  from  the  touch,  for  which 
'  reason  it  is  called  the  American  sensitive  plant. 

A  plant,  called  by  the  Indians  Red-bud  (CKHCIS  canadensis], 
belongs  to  the  same  natural  family.  It  is  a  large  tree,  appear- 
ing as  early  as  April,  loaded  with  clusters  of  fine  crimson 
flowers  ;  the  leaves,  which  are  large  and  heart-shaped,  do  not 
appear  as  early  as  the  blossoms.  The  beautiful  aspect  of  the 
tree  attracts  to  it  many  insects,  particularly  humble-bees.  A 
botanist*  says,  "  1  have  often  observed  hundreds  of  the  common 
humble-bees  lying  dead  under  these  trees  while  in  flower." 
This  is  not  the  only  example  of  fatal  consequences  resulting 
from  trusting  too  much  to  external  appearances !  This  tree  is 
not  improperly  called  Judas'  tree,  a  name  by  which  it  is  often 
known. 

The  three  genera  of  plants  which  we  have  now  noticed,  bear 
fruit  in  that  kind  of  pod  called  a  legume  ;  this  is  the  case,  in 
general,  with  the  papilionaceous  flowers. 

The  rue  (Ruta)  is  an  exotic,  which  gives  name  to  a  family 
called  RutacetB ;  these  plants  have  a  monophyllous  calyx  ;  five 
petals  alternating  with  the  lobes  of  the  calyx ;  the  germ  is  large 
and  superior  (See  Fig.  114,  a).    • 
*  W.  P.  C.  Barton. 
Order  Monoirynia — Wild  Indigo-  Cassia — Cercis. 


ORDER  MONOGYNIA.  231 

At  b,  Fig.  114,  is  a  representation  of  a  flower  of  the  Saxi- 
fraga,  a  very  extensive  genus ;  one  species  of  which,  an  exotic, 
sometimes  vulgarly  called  beef-steak,  is  much  cultivated  as  a 
green  house  plant ;  it  is  very  hardy ;  its  leaves  are  roundish 
and  hairy  :  it  sends  forth  creeping  shoots. 

In  shady  woods,  whe*re  the  soil  is  loose  and  rich,  we  find  in 
June  and  July,  the  winter-green  (Gaultheria),  a  perennial  plant 
which  grows  to  the  height  of  eight  or  ten  inches  ;  the  pleasant 
taste  of  the  leaves  of  this  plant,  and  the  still  finer  flavour  of  ite 
fruit,  are  well  known ;  the  drooping  blossom  is  also  very  deli- 
cate and  beautiful,  consisting  of  a  bell-form  corolla,  (not  unlike 
the  lily  of  the  valley,)  the  colour  of  which  is  white,  tinged  with 
pink.  Though  you  may  have  often  enjoyed  eating  the  fruit 
and  leaves  of  the  winter-green,  you  will  experience  a  delight 
which  this  mere  pleasure  of  sense  could  not  have  afforded, 
when  in  your  botanical  rambles  in  the  woods,  you  chance 
to  meet  with  this  plant  in  blossom,  with  its  little  flowers  just 
peeping  out  from  a  bed  of  dry  leaves  :  you  may  then  enjoy 
the  pleasure  of  a  beautiful  object  of  sight,  with  the  higher  en- 
joyment  of  intellectual  gratification,  by  tracing  in  it,  not  only 
intrinsic  beauty,  but  those  characters  which  give  it  a  definite 
place  in  scientific  arrangement. 

In  the  same  natural  family  with  the  winter-green  are  two 
genera,  Pyrola  and  Chimaphila,  which  by  some  botanists  have 
been  included  under  one  ;  but  they  appear  to  be  sufficiently 
distinct  from  each  other  to  constitute  a  separate  genus.  These 
plants  belong  to  the  natural  order  Bicornes,  or  two  horns ; 
alluding  to  the  two  protuberances  like  straight  horns,  which 
appear  on  their  anthers.  The  heath  in  the  8th  class  is  of  the 
same  natural  family,  as  also  the  whortleberry  (Vaccinium), 
which  contains  a  great  many  species  ;  the  Europeans  place 
this  genus  in  the  class  Octandria,  but  an  American  botanist* 
says,  "  that  of  twenty-five  species  in  our  country,  not  one  is 
found  with  eight  stamens,  and  in  Europe  only  three  species 
are  known  with  that  number."  He  very  properly  inquires, 
whether  all  our  American  species  ought  to  be  misplaced  on 
account  of  those  few  European  species.  The  cranberry  (Oxy- 
coccus),  which  was  formerly  considered  a  species  of  the  same 
genus  as  the  whortleberry,  as  it  has  but  eight  stamens,  is 
removed  into  the  eighth  class.  Among  the  different  species  of 
the  whortleberry  is  one  with  blue  berries,  another  with  very 
black  berries,  and  the  bilberry,  which  is  a  large  shrub  from 
five  to  eight  feet  high. 

*  Eaton. 

Winter-green  and  other  plants  of  the  family  Bicornes— Genus  Vacciniurn. 


232  CLASS  DECANDRIA. 

A  great  proportion  of  the  plants  in  the  first  order  of  the 
tenth  class  are  to  be  found  in  shady  woods  in  June  and  July. 
We  can  here  enumerate  but  few  of  them  ;  in  the  description 
of  the  genera  of  plants  which  we  have  provided,  you  will  be 
able  to  find  the  most  common  ones. 

We  will  not,  however,  omit  to  mention  the  Monotropa,  a 
most  curious  little  plant ;  several  stems  of  a  few  inches  in 
height,  usually  grow  up  in  a  cluster,  each  stem  supporting  a 
single  flower,  which,  in  form,  resembles  a  tobacco  pipe.  The 
stems  have  scales  upon  them  but  no  leaves ;  the  whole  plant  is 
perfectly  white  and  looks  as  if  made  of  wax  ;  it  is  sometimes 
called  Indian  pipe.  You  must  look  for  this  in  shady  woods 
near  the  roots  of  old  trees,  in  June  or  July. 

Rhododendron,  or  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  mountain  laurel 
or  rose  bay,  an  evergreen  with  large  and  beautiful  oval  leaves, 
is  found  growing  on  the  sides  of  mountains,  or  in  wet  swamps 
of  cedar  ;  it  flourishes  beneath  the  shade  of  the  trees ;  the 
pink  and  white  flowers  appear  in  large  showy  clusters  and 
continue  in  bloom  for  a  long  period  ;  they  have  a  5  toothed 
calyx,  a  5  cleft  funnel-form,  somewhat  irregular  corolla,  sta- 
mens 10,  sometimes  half  the  number,  capsule  5  celled,  5 
valved. 

At  Fig.  114,  c,  is  a  flower  of  the  genus  Ledum,  which  is 
found  in  the  same  family  as  the  Rhododendron ;  it  has  a  very 
small  calyx,  and  a  flat,  five-parted  corolla. 

Connected  by  natural  relations  to  the  two  genera  above  men- 
tioned, is  the  American  laurel  (Kalmia),  a  splendid  shrub,  some- 
times, found  ten  or  thirteen  feet  high.  On  the  Catskill  moun- 
tains, it  is  said  to  have  been  seen  twenty  feet  in  height ;  the 
flowers  grow  in  that  kind  of  cluster  called  a  corymb ;  they  are 
either  white  or  red ;  but  this  fair  and  beautiful  shrub  is  of  a 
poisonous  nature,  particularly  fatal  to  sheep  who  are  attracted 
towards  it ;  one  species  of  the  Kalmfa  is  on  this  account  called 
sheep  laurel. 

Among  the  plants  which  have  a  place  in  this  part  of  the 
artificial  system,  is  the  DIONJSA  muscipula,  or  Venus'  fly -trap. 
This  is  a  native  of  North  Carolina ;  the  leaves  spring  from  the 
roots,  each  leaf  has  at  its  extremity  a  kind  of  appendage,  like 
a  small  leaf  doubled  ;  this  is  bordered  on  its  edges  by  glands, 
resembling  little  hairs,  containing  a  liquid  that  attracts  insects; 
but  no  sooner  does  the  unfortunate  insect  alight  upon  the  leaf> 
than  with  a  sudden  spring,  it  closes  itself,  and  the  little  prisoner 
is  crushed  to  death  in  the  midst  of  the  sweets  it  had  impru- 
dently attempted  to  seize  ;  after  the  insect,  overcome  by  the 

Monotropa  or  Indian  pipe — Mountain  laurel — Kalmia  or  sheep  laurel — 
Dioneea. 


ORDER  MONOGYNIA.  '233 

closeness  of  the  grasp,  has  expired,  the  leaf  again  unfolds  itself. 
These  movements  are  accounted  for,  by  attributing  to  the 
plant  a  power  of  irritability,  which  is  excited  by  the  touch  of 
any  object.  Although  we  account  for  the  phenomenon  by 
attributing  it  to  the  irritability  of  the  plant,  we  have  only  re- 
moved  the  difficulty  by  adducing  a  cause  which  itself  remains 
to  be  explained.  We  shall  in  a  future  lecture  make  some 
remarks  upon  the  irritability,  or  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  sen- 
sibility  of  plants  ;  many  curious  and  interesting  facts,  respect- 
ing this  singular  property  of  vegetables,  may  be  collected  ; 
many  plausible  theories  to  account  for  it  have  been  given  ; 
but  the  efficient  cause  is  too  deep  for  man  to  penetrate  ;  his 
feeble  faculties  cannot  comprehened  the  designs  and  opera- 
tions of  Almighty  Power. 

The  Second  Order  of  the  tenth  class  contains  the  Hydran- 
gea, an  elegant  East  Indian  exotic ;  a  species  of  this  plant,  a 
shrub  with  white  flowers,  is  said  to  have  been  found  on  the 
banks  of  the  Schuylkill  river. 

The  Pink  (Dianthus)  belongs  to  an  extensive  natural  order, 
Caryophyllete,  which  is  distinguished  by  having  five  petals  in- 
serted with  claws.  One  native  species  of  the  genus  Dianthus, 
called  armeria,  or  Wild  Pink,  has  been  found  in  New  Jersey 
and  New  England. 

The  Third  Order,  or  Trigynia,  contains  some  plants  which 
belong  to  the  same  natural  order  as  the  pink. 

The  Fourth  Order,  Tetragynia,  is  not  important. 

The  Fifth  Order,  Pentagynia,  produces  a  plant,  Agrotfemma, 
known  by  the  name  of  Cockle ;  this  is  very  common  in  fields  ; 
although  troublesome,  and  regarded  but  as  a  weed,  it  is  a 
handsome  pink-like  plant,  bearing  a  deep  red  or  purple  blos- 
som ;  in  its  genuine  character  it  differs  little  from  the  genus 
which  contains  the  pink,  except  in  having  five  pistils  instead 
of  two,  on  which  account  it  is  placed  in  the  fifth  order. 

Here  is  also  found  the  Sorrel  (Oxalis),  which  produces  the 
oxalic  acid,  similar  in  its  properties  to  the  juice  of  lemons  ; 
though  poisonous,  this  acid  is  useful  in  taking  the  stains  from 
linen. 

In  the  Tenth  Order  is  the  Poke-weed  (Phytolacca),  a  very 
common  plant ;  the  fruit  of  which  consists  of  large,  dark  ber- 
ries, often  used  by  children  for  the  purpose  of  colouring  purple. 
The  young  shoots  are  tender,  and  are  sometimes  eaten  as  a 
substitute  for  asparagus.  The  flower  of  this  plant  presents  us 
with  10  stamens,  10  styles,  a  calyx  with  5  white  leaves  resem- 
bling petals,  a  berry  superior  (above  the  germ),  with  10  cells 
and  10  seeds. 

Hydrangea— Pink— Cockle— Sorrel— Poke-weed. 
20* 


234 


CLASS  ICOSANDRIA. 


We  have  now  finished  a  review  of  the  first  ten  classes,  or 
the  first  group  of  classes,  those  which  depend  upon  the  siii»;l«' 
circumstance  of  the  number  of  separate  stamens  ;  in  our  next 
lecture  we  shall  consider  the  two  classes  which  depend  on  tlie 
number  and  insertion  of  the  stamens. 


LECTURE  XXX. 


CLASS  XI. — ICOSANDRIA. 


Fig.  115. 


In  the  class  now  before  us,  the  num. 
ber  of  stamens  is  not  the  characteristic 
mark  of  distinction  ;  this  consists  in  the 
manner  of  the  insertion  of  these  or- 
gans. In  the  analysis  of  the  rose, 
you  have  already  become  acquainted 
>vith  the  leading  features  of  this  class, 
and  will,  therefore,  the  less  need  a 
minute  detail  of  these  elementary  dis- 
tinctions. 

Had  we  followed  the  classification, 
which  has,  until  recently,  been  admitted 
by  writers  on botany,we  should  liavehad 
another  class  to  examine  before  we  came  to  Icosandria ;  this  was 
called  Dodecandria,  from  Dodeka,  12,  and  andria,  stamen ;  it 
was  not,  as  you  might  infer  from  the  name,  confined  to  12  sta- 
mens, but  contained  from  10  to  20,  without  anyxegard  to  their 
insertion,  as  standing  either  upon  the  calyx  or  receptacle. 
This  class  produced  confusion  in  the  science  of  botany,  for  it 
is  found  that  plants  having  more  than  ten  stamens,  frequently 
vary  as  to  their  number ;  and  there  being  no  difficulty  in  dis- 
tributing all  plants  of  this  class  into  the  two  next,  it  has  been 
by  consent  of  most  botanists  left  out  of  the  classification  ;  and 
the  plants  which  it  contained,  arranged  under  Icosandria,  if  the 
stamens  were  on  the  calyx,  and  Polyandria,  if  the  stamens  were 
inserted  upon  the  receptacle.  The  manner  of  insertion  is  al- 
ways the  same,  and  therefore  there  can  be  no  confusion  with 
respect  to  determining  the  classes  upon  this  principle. 

You  will  observe  that  this  omission  of  one  class  changes  the 
numbers  of  the  remaining  classes  ;  as  Icosandria,  which  was 
formerly  the  twelfth,  is  now  the  eleventh,  and  so  on  with  the 
other  classes.  It  is  on  account  of  these  changes  that  we  wish 


Class  Icosandria — Omitted  class — Names   of  classes  expressive  of  their 
character. 


ORDER  MONOGYNIA.  235 

you  to  learn  the  classes  by  their  appropriate  names,  as  Monan- 
dria,  Diandria,  rather  than  to  confine  yourselves  merely  to  the 
numbers,  as  1st,  2nd,  &c.  Besides,  the  name  of  each  class  is 
generally  expressive  of  its  character ;  and  will,  when  you  un- 
derstand its  derivation,  convey  to  you  the  idea  of  this  character, 
which,  by  the  number  alone,  could  not  be  done  ;  for  example, 
the  term  eleventh  class,  conveys  no  distinction  but  that  of  mere 
number ;  but  the  classical  name  Icosandria  (from  Eikosi,  20, 
and  andria,  stamen),  means  20  stamens ;  this  then  reminds 
you  of  the  circumstance  on  which  the  class  is  founded. 

The  name  Icosandria,  seems  not,  however,  exactly  well 
chosen  to  represent  the  eleventh  class,  which  is  not  confined  to 
twenty  stamens,  having  sometimes  as  few  as  ten,  and  in  some 
cases  nearly  a  hundred  stamens.  An  American  botanist*  has 
proposed  to  call  the  class  Calycandria,  from  calyxf  and  an- 
dria,  as  the  insertion  of  the  stamens  on  the  calyx  is  the  essen- 
tial circumstance  on  which  the  class  depends ;  this  change 
has  been  approved,  but  the  old  name  is  still  used.  Thus  with 
respect  to  the  name  given  to  the  great  American  Continent,  all 
allow  it  should  have  been  Columbia,  after  Columbus,  its  dis- 
coverer ;  but  when  once  custom  has  sanctioned  a  name,  it  be- 
comes very  difficult  to  overcome  this  authority  by  arguments 
drawn  from  reason.  We  shall,  therefore,  in  compliance  with 
the  use  of  botanists,  call  the  class  Icosandria. 

Monogynia. 

The  first  genus  which  we  meet  with  in  this  class  is  CACTUS  ; 
it  contains  many  species  ;  a  very  splendid  one  is  the  Night- 
blooming  Cereus  (CACTUS  grandijiorus\  having  flowers  nearly 
a  foot  in  diameter,  with  the  calyx  yellow,  and  the  petals  white; 
they  begin  to  open  soon  after  the  setting  of  the  sun,  and  close 
before  its  rising,  never  again  to  blossom.  Another  species 
(speciossissimus),  with  flowers  of  the  colour  of  crimson-velvet ; 
it  is  said  to  be  still  more  superb  than  the  grandiflorus ;  this 
genus  belongs  to  a  natural  order,  Succulenta,  or  juicy  plants ; 
they  are  in  general  destitute  of  leaves,  but  the  stems  often 
appear  like  a  series  of  thick,  fleshy  leaves,  one  growing  from 
the  top  of  another.  The  different  species  of  this  genus  are 
distinguished  by  a  diversity  of  common  names ;  when  they 
are  of  a  round  form,  they  are  called  Melon  thistles ;  when 
more  cylindrical  and  erect,  Torch  thistles;  when  creeping 
with  lateral  roots,  Cereuses ;  and  when  composed  of  a  stem 
resembling  flattened  leaves,  Prickly  pears. 

*  Darlington.  t  Calyx,  genitive  in  Latin  Calycis. 

Calycandria — Genus  Cactus — Different  species  distinguished  by  a  diversity 
of  common  names. 


236  C'LASS  1COSANDRIA. 

PRCHVUS  is  the  genus  which  contains  the  various  kinds  of 
the  plum,  cherry  and  sloe  :  this  genus,  according  to  ancient 
writers,  was  brought  from  Syria  into  Greece,  and  from  thence 
into  Italy.  The  Roman  poets  often  notice  its  fruit.  We  have 
several  native  species  of  it. 

The  pomegranate  (PIMCA),  is  a  shrubby  tree,  which  is  a 
native  of  Spain,  Italy,  and  tfarbary,  and  flowers  from  June 
till  September.  The  Greek  writers  were  acquainted  with  it, 
and  we  are  told  by  Pliny,  that  its  fruit  was  sold  in  the  neigh- 
bourhoo^  of  Carthage.  It  is  cultivated  in  England  and  in  the 
United  States;  not  on  account  of  its  fruit,  which  does  not  come 
to  perfection  so  far  .to  the  north,  but  as  its  large  and  beautiful 
scarlet  flowers  render  it  an  ornamental  plant. 

At  Fig.  115,  a,  is  the  flower  of  the  pomegranate  (Punica 
pranatum) ;  b,  represents  the  stamens  of  the  same,  as  adhering 
to  the  calyx. 

The  genus  AMYGDALUS  contains  the  peach  and  the  almond. 
The  latter  is  a  native  of  warm  countries,  and  seems  to  have 
been  known  in  the  remotest  times  of  antiquity. 

Di-pentagyniu. 

The  four  orders  in  the  class  Icosandria,  which  follow  the 
first,  are  included  under  one,  called  Di-pentagynia,  signifying 
two  and  five  pistils.  We  find  in  this  order  the  hawthorn  (Cra- 
taBgus),  a  shrub  with  deep  green  foliage,  white  flowers  and 
scarlet  berries,  and  with  very  large  and  strong  thorns. 

The  genus  Pyrus  which  contains  the  apple  and  pear,  belongs 
to  the  natural  order  Pomaceae.*  The  varieties  of  these  fruits 
are  the  effect  of  cultivation,  not  the  produce  of  different  spe- 
cies. By  means  of  grafting  or  inoculation,  which  consists  in 
inserting  the  bud  of  one  tree  into  another,  good  fruit  may  be 
produced  upon  a  tree  which  before  produced  a  poorer  kind. 

Linnceus'  natural  order,  Pomacca,  is  included  by  Jussieu  in 
his  family  Rosacece,  having  rosaceous  corollas.  This  family  is 
divided  into  sections;  as  the  Pomacea,  having  its  fruit  fleshy 
like  the  apple  and  pear ;  the  Rosa,  having  urn  form  calyxes  ; 
Amygdala,  having  drupe  like  fruits,  &c. 

Pdyfrynia. 

In  the  13th  order  we  find  the  Rose  ;  this,  in  its  natural  state, 
contains  but  five  petals ;  it  is  remarkable  for  the  change  of  its 
stamens  to  petals  by  cultivation.  Several  species  of  the  Rose 

*  So  called  from  Pomum,  on  apple. 

Prunus— Pomegranate—  Amygdalus— Order  Di-pentagynia—  Pyrufl.  varieties 
by  grafting— Family  Rosace®  divided  into  sections— Order  Polygynia— Rose. 


ORDER  POLYGYNIA.  237 

are  indigenous  to  North  America ;  as  the  small  wild  rose,  the 
sweet  briar,  and  swamp  rose.  Red  and  white  roses  are  re- 
markable in  English  history  as  emblems  of  the  houses  of  York 
and  Lancaster ;  for  when  those  families  contended  for  the 
crown,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  the  sixth,  the  white  rose  distin- 
guished the  partizans  of  the  house  of  York,  and  the  red  those 
of  Lancaster.  Among  the  nations  of  the  east,  particularly  in 
Persia,  the  rose  flourishes  in  great  beauty  and  is  highly  valued* 
The  Persians  poetically  imagine  a  peculiar  sympathy  between 
the  rose  and  the  nightingale. 

The  Blackberry  (Rubus),  has  a  flower  resembling  the  rose 
in  general  aspect ;  there  are  several  species  of  the  Rubus,  one 
which  produces  the  common  blackberry,  another  the  red  rasp- 
berry, another  the  black  raspberry,  and  another  the  dewberry. 
One  species,  the  odoratus,  produces  large  and  beautiful  red 
flowers,  the  fruit  of  which,  is  dry  and  not  eatable. 

.  The  Strawberry  belongs  to  the  same  natural  and  artificial 
order  as  the  Rose.  The  gathering  of  strawberries  in  the 
fields,  is  among  the  rural  enjoyments  of  children,  which  are 
in  after  life,  recollected  with  pleasure,  not  unfrequently  mingled 
with  melancholy  reflections,  upon  the  contrast  of  that  happy 
season,  with  the  sorrows,  with  which  maturer  years  are 
shaded.  The  fruit  of  the  strawberry,  as  was  remarked  in  the 
classification  of  fruits,  is  not  really  a  berry,  but  a  collection  of 
seeds,  imbedded  in  a  fleshy  receptacle, 

Icosandria  furnishes  us  with  a  great  variety  of  fine  fruits, 
more  perhaps  than  any  other  of  the  artificial  classes.  A 
great  proportion  of  the  genera  to  be  found  in  this  class,  are 
natives  of  the  United  States. 

Blackberry— Strawberry. 


238 


CLASS  POLYANDRIA. 


LECTURE    XXXI. 

CLASS    XII. POLYANDRIA. 

IN  this  class  we  find  the  stamens 
separate  from  the  calyx,  and  attached 
to  the  receptacle  or  top  of  the  flower 
stem.  The  number  of  stamens  in  this 
class  varies  from  twenty  to  some  him- 
dreds.  This  class  does  not,  like  the 
one  we  have  last  examined,  contain  a 
great  many  delicious  fruits,  but  rather 
abounds  in  poisonous  and  active  vege- 
tables. The  mode  of  insertion  of  the 
stamens  is  to  be  regarded  in  consider, 
ing  the  wholesome  qualities  of  plants ; 
it  is  asserted  that  no  plant  with  the 

stamens  on  the  calyx  is  poisonous  ;  we  know  that  very  many 

with  the  stamens  upon  the  receptacle  are  so. 

In  the  analysis  of  the  Poppy  we  have  already  examined  the 

peculiar  characteristics  of  this  class. 

Monogynia. 

We  find  in  the  first  order  some  flowers  of  a  curious  appear- 
ance, as  the  Mandrake  (Podophyllum) ;  the  distinction  be- 
tween  this  and  the  mandrake  of  the  ancients,  was  remarked 
under  the  class  Pentandria.  This  plant  is  very  common  in 
moist,  shady  places,  where  you  may  often  see  great  quantities 
of  it  growing  together ;  each  stem  supports  a  large,  white 
flower  and  two  large,  peltate,  palmate  leaves ;  its  yellow 
fruit  is  eaten  by  many  as  a  delicacy. 

The  Side-saddle  flower  (Sarracenia),  is  a  very  curious  and 
elegant  plant »  it  has  large  leaves  proceeding  directly  from  the 
root.  These  leaves  form  a  kind  of  cup,  capable  of  containing 
a  gill  or  more  of  water,  with  which  liquid  they  are  usually 
filled.  The  stem  is  of  that  kind  called  a  scape,  growing  to 
the  height  of  one  or  two  feet,  bearing  a  single  large  purple 
flower.  This  plant  is  found  in  swamps  ;  its  common  name, 
Side-saddle  flower,  is  given  in  reference  to  the  form  of  its 
leaf.  It  is  sometimes  called  Adam's  cup,  in  reference  also  to 
the  shape  of  the  leaf.  The  name  of  the  genus  SARRACENIA, 
is  derived  from  an  imaginary  resemblance  of  the  flower,  to 
the  head  of  a  Saracen  or  Turk  enveloped  in  his  crimson  tur- 
ban. No  foreign  plant  as  an  object  of  curiosity,  can  exceed 


Class  Polyandria— Order  Monogynia— Podophyllura— Sarracenia. 


ORDER  MONOGYNIA.  239 

this  native  of  our  own  swamps ;  it  is  well  worth  the  trouble 
of  cultivation  by  those  who  are  fond  of  collecting  rare  plants. 
The  White  Pond  Lily  (Nymphsea*),  is  a  splendid  American 
plant,  very  fragrant  and  with  a  larger  leaf  than  almost  any 
other  northern  plant.  This  flower  closes  at  evening  and  sinks 
tinder  the  water ;  at  the  return  of  day  its  blossoms  expand 
and  rise  above  the  surface. 

The  Yellow  Pond  Lily  (Nuphar),  though  less  showy,  is 
equally  curious  in  its  structure. 

In  this  artificial  class  and  order  is  the  Tea  tree  (THEA)  ;  of 
this  plant  there  are  two  species,  the  bohea  tea  (bohea),  and  the 
green  tea  (viridis).  It  is  a  small  ever  green  tree  or  shrub, 
much  branched  and  covered  with  a  rough,  dark  coloured  bark. 
The  flowers  are  white,  the  leaves  are  lanceolate  and  veined, 
the  capsule  or  seed  vessel  is  three  celled,  opening  ;  the  seeds 
are  three,  oblong  and  brown.  This  shrub  is  a  native  of  China 
and  Japan.  Some  suppose,  that  all  the  teas  are  taken  from  the 
same  botanical  species,  and  that  the  different  flavour  and  ap- 
pearance of  them  depend  upon  the  nature  of  the  soil,  and  cul- 
ture, and  the  method  of  preparing  the  leaves. 

On  account  of  the  secret  and  jealous  policy  of  the  Chinese, 
the  natural  history  of  the  Tea  plant  is  less  known  than  might 
be  expected  from  its  very  general  use.  The  Chinese  begin 
in  February  to  gather  the  tea  leaves,  when  they  are  young 
and  yet  unexpanded.  The  second  collection  is  made  in  April, 
and  the  third  in  June.  The  first  gathering,  which  consists 
only  of  the  young  and  tender  leaves,  is  the  Imperial  tea;  the 
other  two  kinds  are  less  odorous;  the  last  collected  is  the 
coarest  and  cheapest  kind.  Tea  was  introduced  into  Europe, 
by  the  Dutch  East  India  Company,  in  the  year  1666,  when  it 
sold  for  sixty  shillings  a  pound,  and  for  many  years  its  great 
price  limited  its  use  to  the  most  wealthy.  In  considering  the 
effects  of  tea  upon  the  human  system,  medical  writers  differ 
in  opinion,  and  a  doubt  seems  to  remain  whether  the  use  of  it 
is  on  the  whole  beneficial  or  injurious  to  the  health  of  mankind. 
If  it  is  not  injurious  to  health,  the  use  of  it  no  doubt  promotes 
the  happiness  of  society,  as  it  is  exhilarating,  and  adds  to  the 
enjoyment  of  social  intercourse. 

The  Poppy  (Papaver)  was  one  of  the  flowers  early  given 
you  for  analysis.  Its  numerous  stamens  standing  upon  the  re- 
ceptacle around  the  base  of  the  germ,  and  its  large  stigma,  with 

*  An  extensive  locality  of  this  plant  exists  upon  the  Saratoga  lake,  I  have 
seen  its  surface  for  a  quarter  of  a  mile  whitened  by  these  lilies,  occasionally 
intermixed  with  the  yellow  lilies,  and  the  rich  blue  of  the  Pontederia,  another 
beautiful  aquatic  plant. 

Pond  lilies— Tea  tree— Poppy. 


240  CLASS  POLYANDRIA. 

its  two  leaved  caducous  calyx,  must  be  well  remembered. 
Single  poppies  have  but  four  petals ;  but  the  change  of  sta- 
mens to  petals  is  very  common  in  this  flower,  and  most  of  the 
cultivated  poppies  are  double.  From  the  papaver  somniferum 
is  obtained  the  opium  of  commerce.  The  juice  which  issues 
from  incisions  in  the  green  capsules,  is  dried  in  the  sun  and 
usually  made  into  cakes.  Six  hundred  thousand  pounds  of  this 
drug  are  said  to  be  annually  exported  from  the  banks  of  the 
Ganges.  The  narcotic  property  of  opium  renders  it  highly 
valuable  as  a  medicine. 

Why  it  is  that  certain  substances,  acting  upon  the  human 
system,  have  power  to  affect  the  mind,  no  physiologist  has  yet 
been  able  to  explain.  But  in  the  power  of  fermented  liquors 
to  produce  changes  in  the  mind,  or  of  opium  to  lull  its  faculties 
into  temporary  oblivion,  there  is  nothing  more  wonderful,  than 
that  the  presence  of  light  should  produce  vision,  or  the  vibra- 
tions of  the  air  sound.  All  are  equally  beyond  our  knowledge  ; 
we  may  trace  a  series  of  organic  changes,  but  the  last  link  of 
the  chain,  that  which  connects  body  and  soul,  is  concealed  from 
our  observation.  Thus  why  it  is  we  know  not,  but  the  fact  is 
evident,  that  narcotics  can  for  a  time, 

"  Raze  out  the  written  troubles  of  the  brain, 
And  with  a  sweet  oblivious  antidote, 
Cleanse  the  full  bosom  of  that  perilous  stuff 
Which  weighs  upon  the  heart. 

Yet  but  for  a  time  does  this  effect  remain ;  and  they  who  would 
drown  sorrow  by  artificial  means,  whether  of  the  intoxicating 
bowl  or  the  stupefying  opium,  find  their  sensibilities  return  with 
aggravated  terrors.  When  properly  used  to  allay  bodily  an- 
guish,  the  product  of  the  poppy  may  be  considered  one  of  our 
greatest  blessings ;  but  like  all  our  blessings  it  may,  by  our 
own  misconduct,  be  made  a  curse. 

The  genus  Citrus,  which  contains  the  orange  and  lemon,  is 
found  here.  Jussieu  places  this  in  his  70th  order,  Auranlia, 
or  golden  fruits.  The  fruit  is  a  berry  with  a  thick  coat.  It 
furnishes  citric  acid. 

Few  valuable  fruits,  with  the  exception  of  this  genus,  are 
found  in  the  class  Polyandria. 

Di-pentagynia. 

The  four  orders  following  Monogynia,  are,  as  in  the  prece- 
ding class,  united  into  one,  called  as  before,  Di-pentagynia, 
having  from  two  to  five  styles. 

We  find  here  some  plants  of  a  poisonous  nature,  as  the  Lark- 
spur, Monk's  hood,  and  the  Columbine ;  these  belong  to  a  natu- 

Opium — Power  of  opium  and  fermented  liquors  to  affect  the  mind — Genus 
Cilrui — Order  Di-pentagynia. 


ORDER  MONOGYNIA.  241 

ral  order  called  Multisiliquce,  or  many  pods,  there  being  many 
pod-form  capsules  to  each  flower. 

In  the  same  order  we  find  the  Peony  (Pseonia),  a  showy 
flower  which,  when  in  its  native  state,  has  a  5  leaved  calyx,  a 
corolla  with  5  petals,  and  '2  or  3  germs,  each  crowned  by  a 
stigma ;  the  capsules  the  same  in  number  as  the  germs  ;  each 
contains  several  seeds ;  this  flower  is  particularly  remarkable 
for  its  change  by  cultivation. 

Polygynia. 

The  Thirteenth  Order  is  divided  into  two  sections.  1st,  flowers 
with  no  calyx  or  perianth.  2d,  with  a  perianth.  In  the  first  sec- 
tion we  find  several  interesting  native  plants.  The  Clematis 
or  Virgin's  bower,  is  a  beautiful  climbing  plant,  which  supports 
itself  by  winding  its  petioles,  or  leaf-bearing  stems,  around  oth- 
er plants :  the  flowers  are  white  and  clustered  in  corymbs ;  the 
seed  has  a  long  silk-like  fringe,  which  gives  it  a  fine  appear- 
ance after  the  blossoms  have  faded.  This  plant  contains  many 
species,  and  is  cultivated  both  in  this  country  and  in  Europe. 

At  fig.  116,  #,  is  a  flower  of  the  Clematis ;  b  represents  its 
receptacle  with  numerous  styles  proceeding  from  it,  and  the 
petal  and  stamens  separated,  shewing  that  the  former  were  in- 
serted upon  the  receptacle. 

The  ANEMONE  is  a  beautiful  native  flower;  by  cultivation 
its  petals  multiply,  as  in  the  Rose. 

The  RANUNCULUS  contains  many  species  ;  it  belongs  to  the 
same  natural  family  as  the  Anemone ;  but  as  you  will  find  these 
plants  very  common,  and  are  now  able  to  analyze  them,  we 
will  not  at  this  time  devote  attention  to  them. 

The  HELLEBORE  (Helleborus)  is  an  exotic  much  spoken  of 
by  classical  writers.  Hippocrates,  one  of  the  most  ancient  phy- 
sicians, remarks  upon  its  qualities :  it  grew  about  Mount  Olym- 
pus, and  was  regarded  as  a  very  poisonous  plant. 

The  Magnolia*  and  Tulip  tree  are  among  the  most  splendid 
trees  of  North  America ;  they  are  said  also  to  be  common  to 
China.  The  Magnolia  grandiflora  extends  from  South.  Caro- 
lina to  the  isthmus  of  Darien.  In  some  cases  these  trees  rise 
to  the  height  of  90  feet  before  sending  off  any  considerable 
branches ;  the  spreading  top  is  then  clothed  with  deep  green, 
oblong,  oval  leaves,  like  a  laurel ;  these  are  at  most  seasons 
enlivened  by  large  and  fragrant  white  flowers. 

The  class  Polyandria,  though  not  important  for  its  fruits,  con- 
tains some  valuable  medicinal  plants,  besides  opium  and  tea, 
which  we  have  noticed. 

*•  Named  in  honour  of  Magnol,  a  distinguished  botanist 


Natural  order  Multisiliquse — Peony — Order  Polygynia — Clematis — Anemone 
—Ranunculus — Hellebore — Magnolia. 

21 


242 


CLASS  DIDYXAMIA. 


LECTURE  XXXII. 

CLASS  XIII — DIDYNAMIA,  AND  XIV — TETRADYNAMIA. 

THE  two  classes  which  are  to  afford  subjects  for  our  present 
observations,  are  founded  upon  the  number  and  relative  length 
of  the  stamens. 

In  distinguishing  their  orders,  the  number  of  styles  is  not  re- 
garded,  but  new  circumstances  of  distinction  are  introduced, 
viz.  the  seeds"  being  enclosed  in  a  capsule,  or  destitute  of  any 
such  covering";  and  the  comparative  length  of  pods. 
Class  Didijnamia. 


Fig.  117. 


This  class  has  flowers  with  four  sta- 
mens, two  of  which  are  longer  than 
the  other  two ;  plants  of  this  class  are 
in  general  easily  distinguished;  the 
stamens  stand  in  pairs ;  the  outer  pair 
being  longer,  the  inner  pair  shorter, 
and  converging. 

The  class  contains  two  orders,  Gym- 
nospermia  (naked  seeds),  and  Angio- 
sperinia  (seeds  covered). 


Gymnospermia. 

In  the  1st  order,  which  contains  plants  with^bwr  naked  seeds, 
the  flowers  grow  in  whorls  or  rings,  having  a  square  or  angled 
stem,  and  leaves  opposite.  The  corollas  are  labiate,  having 
divisions  resembling  lips,  and  they  are  also  called  ringent,  or 
gaping,  because  the  lips  appear  to  be  open.  The  calyx  is 
either  in  five  equal  parts,  or  consists  of  two  lips. 

At  Fig.  117,  a,  is  a  flower  of  the  genus  Teucrium  (german- 
der) ;  the  corolla  is  ringent ;  the  upper  lip  is  two-cleft ;  the 
lower  lip  is  three-cleft;  the  stamens  and  pistils  are  incurved; 
the  stamens  are  expert  through  the  cleavage  on  the  upper  side  ; 
b,  shews  the  pistil  with  its  four  uncovered  or  gymnospermous 
seeds. 

The  plants  of  this  order  are  mostly  aromatic ;  very  few  are 
poisonous.  We  find  here  the  Mint,  Lavender,  Penny-royal, 
Balm,  and  others  of  a  similar  nature.  They  are  included  un- 
der the  natural  family  Labiata.  For  more  particular  remarks 


Classes  13th  and  14th,  on  what  founded — Their  orders — Class  Didynnmia — 
Order  Gymnospermia. 


CLASS  TETRADYNAMIA. 


243 


upon  these  plants,  you  can  consult  remarks  on  the  Labiate 
flowers.  i 

Angiospermia. 

The  2d  order  contains  those  plants  which  have  their  seed 
covered,  or  in  a  capsule  ;  the  seeds  are  numerous.  Plants  of 
this  order  appear  to  have  an  affinity  with  some  families  of  the 
class  Pentandria.  Many  have,  in  addition  to  the  four  stamens, 
a  fifth  filament,  which  appears  to  be  the  rudiment  of  another 
stamen  ;  sometimes  the  irregular  corolla  varies  into  a  regular 
form  with  five  divisions.  Among  those  which  exhibit  the  im- 
perfect fifth  stamen,  are  the  Trumpet-flower,  Foxglove,  and 
Penstemon. 

In  this  order  the  personate  corollas  are  to  be  found,  or  such 
labiate  flowers  as  have  closed  lips.  Fig.  117,  c,  represents  a 
flower  of  this  kind;  at  d,  is  the  pistil,  shewing  the  capsule,  or 
that  the  seeds  are  angiospermous.  It  should  be  observed  that 
not  all  the  flowers  of  this  order  are  labiate ;  some  few  may  be 
found  with  bell-form,  and  funnel-form  corollas.  Plants  of  this 
order  differ  much  in  their  natural  characters,  from  those  of  the 
order  Gymnospermia.  None  of  them  are  used  in  preparations 
for  food,  as  are  the  Thyme  and  Savory  of  the  first  order,  but 
many  of  them  possess  powerful  medicinal  properties,  as  the  fox- 
glove (Digitalis),  and  the  cancer  root  (Epiphegus).  They  are 
in  general  a  beautiful  collection  of  plants ;  few  flowers  are 
more  splendid  than  the  Gerardia  and  the  Trumpet  flower. 
These  flowers  are  found  in  the  natural  order  Personate,  of 
Linnseus. 

As  plants  of  this  class  are  numerous  in  every  part  of  the 
United  States,  you  will  have  no  difficulty  in  procuring  them 
for  analysis ;  they  are  not  usually  found  in  blossom  until  the 
middle  of  summer. 


CLASS    XIV TETRADYNAMIA. 


Fig.  118. 


In  this  class  we  find  the  cruciform 
plants,  or  such  as  have  four  petals  in 
the  form  of  a  cross  ;  the  stamens  are 
six,  four  of  which  are  longer  than  the 
remaining  two ;  the  calyx  has  four 
leaves.  The  orders  in  this  class  are 
two,  depending  on  the  comparative 
length  of  the  pods  ;  this  distinction  is 
not  so  definite  as  that  which  marks  the 
orders  of  the  class  Didynamia.  Plants 
of  this  class  are  not  poisonous ;  many 
of  them  furnish  us  with  useful  food. 


Order  Angiospermia— Class  Tetradynamia— General  Character. 


244  CLASS  MONADELPIIIA. 

SUiculosa. 

The  First  Order  contains  plants  which  produce  a  short  and 
round  pod  called  a  sillicula ;  a  distinction  in  this  order  is  made 
between  such  plants  as  have  pods  with  a  notch  at  the  top,  and 
such  as  have  none,  or  are  entire. 

The  pepper  grass  (Lepidium),  and  the  shepherd's  purse 
(Thlaspi),  afford  examples  of  this  order.  At  Fig.  118,  d,  is 
a  representation  of  the  sillicula  or  pod  of  the  Thlaspi.  The 
plants  found  here,  belong  to  the  natural  family  Siliquosa,  the 
properties  of  which  are  nutritious  and  medicinal. 

tSiliquosa. 

The  Second  Order  contains  such  plants  as  have  long  and 
narrow  pods ;  as  the  radish  and  mustard.  The  cabbage  (Bras- 
sica),  is  an  exotic ;  the  turnip  is  a  species  of  the  same  genus. 
These  belong  to  the  same  natural  family  as  the  plants  of  the 
first  order.  The  whole  are  included  under  the  63d  order  of 
of  Jussieu,  the  Crucifera.  This  order  is  in  Jussieu's  13th 
class,  having  seeds  dicotyledonous,  corollas  polypetalous,  and 
Stamens  hypogynous. 

At  Fig.  118,  fl,  is  the  wall-flower  (Cheiranthus) ;  the  calyx 
consists  of  four  oblong  leaves ;  the  petals  are  obovate,  spread- 
ing, with  claws  as  long  as  the  calyx.  At  £,  appear  the  six 
Stamens  divested  of  the  petals  ;  the  germ  is  cylindrical,  as  long 
as  the  stamens ;  c,  shews  the  silique  or  pod ;  the  valves  are 
concave  and  a  thin  membranous  partition  divides  the  silique 
into  two  parts. 

In  this  lecture  we  have  pointed  out  to  you  the  most  important 
characters  of  the  two  classes,  which  depend  upon  considera- 
tions derived  from  the  number  and  comparative  length  of  the 
stamens  ;  the  one  class  having  four  and  the  other  six  stamens 
of  varying  lengths.  Both  classes  we  found  to  have  two  or- 
ders, not  as  in  the  preceding  classes,  depending  upon  the  styles ; 
but  in  the  one  class,  on  the  situation  of  the  seed  as  lying  in  the 
calyx,  or  enclosed  in  a  seed  vessel ;  in  the  other  class,  from 
the  comparative  length  of  the  pericarp  or  pod. 


LECTURE  XXXIII. 

CLASS   XV MONADELPHIA. 


WE  are  now  to  consider  the  brotherhoods,  as  the  names  of 
the  15th  and  16th  classes  signify;  Monadelphia  meaning  one, 

Order  SUiculosa — Order  Siliquosa — Recapitulation — The  Brotherhoods. 


ORDER  PENTANDRIA. 


245 


and  Diadelphia  two  brotherhoods,  in  allusion  to  the  manner  in 
which  the  filaments  are  connected  in  one  or  two  sets.  The 
orders  in  these  classes  are  arranged  acpording  to  the  number 
of  stamens  ;  a  character  which  distinguishes  the  first  ten 
classes :  bat  no  confusion  arises  from  taking  the  same  charac- 
ter in  these  classes  to  distinguish  the  orders,  since  in  the  classes 
themselves  the  number  of  stamens  is  not  reckoned  as  a  mark 
of  distinction. 

In  the  class  Monadelphia  we  include 
all  such  plants  as  have  their  filaments 
united  in  one  set,  forming  a  tube  at  the 
bottom  of  the  corolla.  -  In  this  union 
of  stamens,  this  class  differs  from  all 
the  preceding  ones ;  for  in  those  we 
found  the  stamens  entirely  separate ; 
in  this,  you  will  observe  thai  the 
anthers  xare  separate,  although  the 
filaments  are  joined.  We  cannot  in 
this  class,  as  in  the  two  preceding  ones, 
point  out  any  prevailing  form  of  the 
corolla ;  the  mark  of  distinction  here 
is  hi  some  cases  rather  doubtful,  the  filaments  being  sometimes 
broad  at  their  base,  and  yet,  not  entirely  connected. 

You  will  recollect  that  the  orders  here,  depend  upon  the 
number  of  stamens.  We  have  no  first  order  here,  for  the 
character  o£  the  class  is  united  filaments,  and  one  filament  or 
stamen  coulcf;not  possess  this  requisite  of  union. 

The  Third  Order  is  the  first  which  occurs ;  this  is  called 
Triandrid,  which  you  know  is  the  name  of  the  third  class,  and 
signifies  three  stamens.  But  here  are  three  stamens  united  by 
their  filaments  into  a  tube.  -We  find  in  this  order  a  handsome 
plant,  called  blue-eyed  grass  (Sisyrincliium) ;  the  three  fila- 
ments have  the  appearance  of  being  but  one ;  the  corolla  is 
tubular  and  6  cleft,  style  1,  capsule  3  celled ;  it  belongs  to  the 
family  of  sword-leaved  plants,  Ensatse.  This  order  contains 
the  tamarind. 

Pentandria. 

The  Fifth  Order,  or  five  stamens,  next  occurs^ ;  this  presents 
us  with  the  passion-flower  (Passiflora),  a  climbing  plant,  pecu- 
liar to  the  warm  countries  of  America.  "  Its  immensely  long, 
and  often  woody  branches,  attain  the  summits  of  the  loftiest 
trees,  or  trail  upon  the  ground  adorned  with  perennially  green, 
or  falling  leaves,  sometimes  palmate,  or  lobed  like  fingers,  at 


Monadelphia— Orders— Order  Triandria— Passion  flower. 

21* 


246  CLASS  MONADELPHIA. 

others  appearing  like  the  laurel.  They  sustain  themselves  by 
means  of  undivided  tendrils  ;  and  send  out  a  succession  of  the 
most  curious  and  splendid  flowers,  of  which.no  other  part  of 
the  world  offers  any  counterpart."*  Of  this  genus  a  number 
of  species  produce  fruits  of  great  excellence ;  this  fruit  in 
South  America  is  called  Purchas.  Sixty  species  of  this  genus 
are  collected  at  the  Linnocan  garden  near  New  York.f  The 
generic  characters  of  the  passion-flower  are  a  5  parted,  co- 
loured calyx,  5  petals  inserted  upon  the  calyx,  5  stamens  and 
3  pistils,  the  nectary,  a  triple  crown  of  filaments.  The  very 
singular  appearance  of  this  flower  in  the  arrangement  of  its 
stamens  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  and  its  triple  crown,  has  sug- 
gested the  idea  of  its  being  emblematic  of  the  passion  or  suffer- 
ing of  our  Saviour  ;  this  idea  is  supposed  to  have  given  rise  to 
its  name. 

This  plant  was  at  one  time  placed  in  the  class  Gynandria, 
upon  the  supposition  that  its  stamens  stood  upon  the  pistil.  An 
English  botanist^  thinks  it  should  be  placed  in  the  class  Pen- 
tandria,  and  order  Trigynia.  Its  situation  in  the  class  and 
order  under  which  we  have  described  it,  is,  however,  that 
generally  assigned  it  by  American  botanists. 

In  this  order  is  also  placed  the  stork's  bill  geranium  (Erodi- 
um),  it  is  an  exotic,  and  belongs  to  the  natural  family  Gerania. 

Heptandria. 

The  Seventh  Order  contains  the  genus  Pelargonium ;  this 
belongs  to  the  family  Geranise ;  this  genus  includes  the  greater 
number  of  green-house  Geraniums ;  it  is  taken  from  the  tenth 
order  and  placed 'here,  because,  although  its  flowers  have  10 
filaments,  but  7  of  them  bear  anthers,  or  they  have  but  7 
perfect  stamens.  The  flower  of  this  genus  is  somewhat 
irregular.  Among  the  varieties  of  the  Pelargonium  now 
cultivated  in  the  United  States,  are, 

The  Fairy  queen  geranium,  with  striped  flowers,  large  and  handsome  leaves. 

The  Fiery  flowered,  with  cordate  leaves,  and  black  and  scarlet  flowers. 

The  Balm  scented,  with  leaves  deeply  five  lobed,  the  flowers  dark  red  and 
black. 

The  Grandiflorum,  has  an  erect  stem,  little  branched,  with  smooth  leaves 
from  five  to  seven  lobed  ;  as  its  name  implies,  the  flowers  are  large. 

The  Large  bracted,  has  an  erect  stem  ;  lea\  PS  cordate  or  heart-shaped,  flowers 
large  and  white,  with  some  streaks  of  purple. 

Frequent  flowering,  or  fish,  a  shrubby,  brown  stem,  with  flat,  cordate,  five 
lobed  leaves,  and  red  flowers,  with  spots  of  black  and  deep  rod. 

Peppermint  scented,  or  Velvet  leaved,  a  shrubby  stem,  much  branched ;  leaves 
cordate,  five  lobed,  soft  to  the  touch  like  velvet,  flowers  small,  white,  and 
purple. 

*Nuttall.  t  See  Prince's  Horticulture.  |  Smith. 

Different  species — Generic  character  and  name — Stork' s-bill  geranium — Pe- 
largonium— Different  geraniums. 


ORDER  POLYANDRIA.  247 

Nutmeg  scented  or  fragrant,  an  erect  stem  much  branched,  leaves  email, 
cordate  and  three  lobed,  flowers  small  and  pale,  tinged  with  blue. 

Royal  purple,  stem  branched;  flat  cordate  leaves,  five  lobed ;  flowers  large 
and  of  a  bright  purple. 

Another  genus  of  the  Geranium  family  is  called  the  Hparea — this  contains 
several  varieties,  differing  chiefly  from  the  Pelargonium,  in  having  a  tuberous 
root,  with  radical  leaves  ;  most  of  the  species  are  yellow.  The  plants  of  the 
natural  family  Geraniag  are  mostly  natives  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  a  region 
to  which  we  are  indebted  for  many  of  our  finest  exotics.* 

Decandria. 

The  Tenth  Order  contains  the  genus  Geranium,  which  differs 
from  the  Pelargonium,  in  having  a  regular  calyx  and  corolla, 
and  also  in  producing  10  perfect  stamens,  which  vary  in  length, 
every  alternate  one  being  longer ;  5  glands  adhere  to  the  base 
of  the  five  long  filaments.  We  have  some  native  species  of 
this  genus  ;  the  .common  Crane's  bill  (GERANIUM  maculatum), 
with  large,  showy,  purple  flowers,  is  often  found  in  meadows 
during  the  first  summer  months. 

At  Fig.  119,  a,  is  a  flower  of  the  genus  Geranium. 

The  three  families  Erodium,  Pelargonium,  and  Geranium, 
were  formerly  all  united  in  one  genus ;  but  the  difference  in 
the  number  of  stamens  seems  decidedly  to  separate  them. 

Polyandria. 

The  Thirteenth  Order,  (many  stamens)  is  made  up  entirely 
of  a  group  of  genera  which  compose  the  natural  order  COLUM- 
NIFER^E,  of  Linnseus ;  the  stamens  are  united  in  the  form  of  a 
column  ;  (see  Fig.  119,  J.)  by  Jussieu  they  have  been  collect- 
ed into  an  order,  under  the  name  of  Malvaceae,  so  called  from 
the  genus  Malva.  The  peculiar  characteristics  of  the  whole 
group  are,  a  calyx  often  double,  5  regular  petals,  stamens 
numerous,  united  by  their  filaments  into  a  tube,  and  rising 
like  a  column  in  the  centre  of  the  flower ;  in  the  centre  of  this 
tube  are  the  styles,  forming  an  inner  bundle  ;  the  number  of 
these  is  various,  though  often  found  to  be  eight.  The  number 
of  seed  vessels,  each  of  which  contains  one  seed,  equals  the 
number  of  styles ;  the  seeds  stand  round  in  a  circle. 

Among  the  plants  which  compose  this  family,  are  the  holly, 
hock,  the  mallows,  and  the  cotton,  (Gossypium.)  The  CAMEL- 
LIA japonica,  or  Japan  rose,  a  very  splendid  flower,  equal  in 
size  to  the  largest  rose,  is  found  here.  Its  beauty  of  form  and 
richness  of  colouring  have  a  fine  appearance,  when  contrast- 
ed with  its  dark  green  leaves. 

Most  of  the  native  species  of  the  class  Monadelphia  may,  in 

*  Prince's  Horticulture. 

-*c "'•  •     '  •  •  —  '••"•• 

Order  Decandria— Order  Polyandria-— Columnifera3— Plants  which  compose 
this  family. 


248 


CLASS  DIADELPIIIA. 


the  season  of  flowers,  be  easily  procured  for  analysis.  The 
hollyhock  is  in  almost  every  garden,  the  common  mallows 
grows  wild  about  dwellings  ;  both  are  good  examples  of  the 
class  Monadelphia. 

The  plants  of  this  class  vary  in  size  from  the  low  mallows 
to  some  of  the  largest  trees  that  have  yet  been  discovered ; 
"  the  Silk  cotton  tree,  (BOMBAX  pentandrum,)  is  so  large,  and 
spreads  its  branches  so  widely  that  twenty  thousand  persons 
might  stand  under  its  branches.  This  tree  is  a  native  of  Af- 
rica and  South  America.  The  Adansonia,  a  native  of  Sene- , 
gal  in  Africa,  is  said  to  grow  to  the  size  of  seventy  feet  in  cir- 
cumference ;  this  tree  also  attains  great  age.  In  1749,  the 
learned  Adanson  saw  two  of  these  trees  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Gorrea,  upon  one  of  which  was  inscribed  the  date  of  the 
fourteenth,  and  upon  the  other  that  of  the  fifteenth  century  ! 
yet  there  were  good  reasons  to  suppose  that  the  trees  were  not 
young  when  the  dates  were  cut.  It  may  be  conjectured  that 
they  have  sometimes  attained  to  the  age  of  eight  or  nine  hun- 
dred years !  an  immense  period  of  time  for  the  existence  of 
any  species  of  organized  bodies."* 

Having  now  considered  the  class  Monadelphia  in  its  most 
important  particulars,  we  will  pass  to  the  next  class,  which  in 
common  with  this,  is  founded  upon  the  union  of  the  filaments. 


LECTURE  XXXIV. 

CLASS  XVI — UIADELPHIA. 

Fig.  120. 

THIS  is  the  class  of  two  brother- 
hoods, the  stamens  being  united  by 
their  filaments  ink)  two  sets.  The 
flowers  of  this  class  have  already  been 
described  under  the  head  of  Papiliona- 
ceous, which  you  will  recollect  means 
butterfly  shaped  ;  this  peculiar  form 
of  their  corollas  is  an  important  mark 
t)f  distinction  in  this  class. 

There  are,  however,  two  circum- 
stances to  be  noted  here,  in  order  to 
prevent  you  from  falling   into  error 
with  respect  to  this  class. 
1st.  There  are  some  plants  here  which  have  their  filaments 

*  B.  S.  Barton. 


Plants  of  this  character  variable  in  size — Adansonia.— Class  Diadelphia— Two 
circumstances  to  be  noted. 


ORDER  DECANDRIA.  249 

united  in  one  set ;  where  a  flower  is  papilionaceous,  it  is  still 
kept  in  this  class,  although  there  may  be  no  apparent  division 
in  the  brotherhood  or  set. 

2nd.  Although  the  flower  be  papilionaceous,  if  it  has  ten  sepa- 
rate stamens,  it  is  placed  in  the  10th  class ;  this  is  the  case  with 
the  cassia  and  wild  indigo.  This  circumstance  was  remarked 
under  the  tenth  class. 

The  distinction  of  the  filaments  into  sets  is  often  somewhat 
difficult  to  be  ascertained  ;  in  the  pea,  for  example,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  take  a  pin,  and  separate  the  filament  which  is  alone,  in 
order  to  perceive  that  it  is  not  united  to  the  other  nine  filaments. 
When  they  are  separated,  it  is  mostly  with  nine  filaments  to- 
gether,  and  one  which  seems  disconnected :  there  are  but  few 
examples  of  stamens  being  arranged  in  equal  sets  of  five  each. 

The  nature  of  the  fruit  in  the  papilionaceous  plants  is  legu- 
minous, or  bearing  a  pod,  like  the  bean  and  pea,  called  a  le- 
gume. 

The  orders  in  this,  as  in  the  preceding  class,  are  founded  up- 
on the  number  of  stamens,  the  class  not  having  appropriated 
to  itself  a  character  drawn  from  the  same  circumstance. 

Pent-Octandria. 

We  could  not  expect  from  the  character  of  the  class,  "sta- 
mens united  into  two  sets,"  to  find  any  plants  with  but  one  sta- 
men ;  therefore  there  is  no  order  until  we  find  some  plants 
which  answer  the  classic  character.  Those  with  five  or  eight 
stamens  are  all  placed  in  one  order  called  Pent-octandria  (five 
and  eight  stamens) ;  here  we  find  Corydalis  and  Fumaria,  be- 
longing to  a  natural  order  Corydales,  which  includes  such  plants 
as  are  -spurred,  or  are  anomalous  ;  the  latter  term  signifying 
that  their  corolla  is  not  such  as  can  be  described  by  any  thing 
else.  The  Corydalis  is  an  elegant  plant  with  bulbous  roots ; 
the  corolla  is  rather  ringent  than  papilionaceous.  In  some  ca- 
ses the  stamens  have  very  broad  bases,  and  scarcely  seem 
united. 

We  find  here  POLYGALA,  one  species  of  which  is  called 
Seneca  snake-root ;  this  not  only  produces  a  beautiful  flower, 
but  is  valuable  as  a  medicine.  We  have  many  species  of  this 
genus,  and  you  will  no  doubt  be  able  to  find  specimens  of  it 
in  the  woods  and  meadows. 

Decandria. 

The  Tenth  Order  is  wholly  composed  of  plants  with  legu- 
minous pods ;  the  general  character  of  these  plants  is  a  calyx 

Flowers  Papilionaceous— Fruit  leguminous— Order  Pent-Octandria— Natu- 
ral order  Corydales— Polygala— Order  Decandria. 


250  CLASS  DIADELPHIA. 

often  5  parted,  corolla  5  petalled,  inserted  on  the  calyx,  con- 
sisting  of  a  banner,  two  wings  and  a  keel ;  stamens  generally 
10,  mostly  united  into  two  sets,  9  and  1 ;  germ  free ;  style  1 ; 
legume  generally  '2  valved,  1  celled,  sometimes  transversely 
divided  into  many  cells,  seeds  affixed  to  the  edge  on  one  side. 

At  Fig.  120,  0,  is  a  flower  of  this  kind  ;  b%  shews  the  sta- 
mens divested  of  their  petals ;  c,  shews  the  pistil,  the  germ 
already  exhibiting  the  form  and  appearance  of  the  legume. 

In  this  large  family  of  plants  with  leguminous  pods  are  many 
of  great  importance  in  the  vegetable  kingdom  ;  but  when  we 
are  able  to  give  some  general  natural  characters,  there  seems 
to  be  less  need  of  particularizing  each  genus.  This  circum- 
stance of  being  able  in  description,  to  include  the  general 
characters  of  the  plants  of  a  large  order  in  this  class,  shows  it 
to  be  composed  of  a  natural  assemblage.  The  singular  form 
of  the  corolla  and  the  nature  of  the  fruit,  with  few  exceptions, 
settle  the  character  of  this  class. 

We  have  here  many  important  plants  which  serve  for  food 
to  man.  The  most  savage  nations  usually  pay  some  attention 
to  Diadelphous  plants.  When  Ferdinand  de  Soto  marched 
his  army  into  Florida,  before  the  middle  of  the  16th  century, 
he  found  the  granaries  of  the  natives  well  stored  with  Indian 
corn  and  certain  "  leguminous  seeds ;"  which  were  probably 
the  Lima  bean  (Dolichos),  or  some  species  of  that  genus  ;  for 
the  natives  still  continue  to  cultivate  them. 

This  class  furnishes  valuable  medicinal  articles  ;  as  the  li- 
quorice and  snake-root.  It  also  furnishes  us  with  plants  for 
dyeing ;  as  the  Indigo  (!NDIGOFERA  tinctoria),  this  is  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the  Wild  Indigo  (Baptisia),  which  during  tho 
revolutionary  war  was  used  for  colouring.  Some  plants  of 
this  class  seem  to  possess  active  properties ;  the  seeds  of  the 
Lupine  are  said  to  be  poisonous.  A  traveller  states,  that  tho 
inhabitants  of  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  are  often  visited  in  the 
night  by  the  hippopotamus  or  river  horse,  a  large  animal 
which  does  great  damage  to  the  gardens  and  fields  ;  and  that 
they  destroy  the  animal  by  placing  a  quantity  of  the  Lupine 
seeds  near  where  he  is  expected  ;  these  he  devours  greedily  ; 
they  soon  swell  in  his  stomach  and  distend  it  so  much  as  to 
cause  death. 

The  Furze  (ULEX  Eurojxms),  is  a  very  common  plant  in 
Europe,  though  not  found  so  far  north  as  Sweden.  It  is  a 
flower  of  beautiful  appearance  ;  so  much  so,  that  Linnaeus,  as 
is  said,  when  he  first  beheld  it,  fell  upon  his  knees,  in  a  trans- 

-  General  character  of  the  order — What  circumstance  shows  this  order  to  be 
composed  of  a  natural  assemblage  ?— These  plants  useful  for  food— For  Medi- 
cine, &c.— Furze. 


ORDER  DECANDRIA.  251 

port  of  gratitude,  and  thanked  the  Author  of  Nature  for  thus 
beautifying  the  earth. 

A  class  called  Polydelphia,  or  many  brotherhoods,  having 
stamens  united  in  more  than  two  sets,  was  formerly  admitted, 
but  it  was  thought  to  be  unnecessary,  and  the  genera  which  it 
contained  have  been  transferred  to  the  class  Polyandria  ;  the 
St.  John's  wort  (Hypericum),  is  among  the  plants  whioh  were 
in  the  rejected  class  ;  this  Has  its  numerous  stamens  in  three 
clusters,  not  united  by  their  filaments  ;  but  even  all  the  species 
of  the  Hypericum  are  not  thus  divided  into  separate  parcels 
of  stamens.  This  distinction,  as  the  character  of  a  class,  is 
very  properly  laid  aside ;  and  the  plants  which  were  in  the 
former  18th  class  Polydelphia  (many  brotherhoods),  are  now 
placed  in  the  12th  class  Polyandria  (many  stamens}. 

In  the  last  two  lectures,  you  will  recollect  we  have  treated 
of  two  classes  distinguished  by  the  union  of  their  filaments. 
In  one  class,  Monadelphia,  the  general  character  was  that  of 
filaments  united  in  one  set  forming  a  tube ;  the  orders  of  this 
class  were  founded  on  the  number  of  stamens,  and  bore  the 
same  names  as  those  classes  which  are  founded  on  a  similar 
circumstance  in  respect  to  the  stamens.  In  this  class,  no  par- 
ticular form  of  the  corolla  was  found  to  be  general,  unless  we 
except  the  last  order,  in  which  the  hollyhock  flowers  may  serve 
as  an  example ;  having  a  double  calyx  of  an  unequal  number 
of  divisions,  a  corolla  of  five  heart-shaped  petals,  united  into 
one  piece  around  the  column,  formed  by  the  united  filaments. 

In  the  other  class,  Diadelphia,  we  found  the  marks  of  dis- 
tinction to  be, 

1st.  The  union  of  the  filaments  into  two  sets, 

2d.  The  butterfly-shaped  corolla ;  and, 

3d.  The  nature  of  the  fruits";  consisting  of  that  kind  of  pod 
called  a  legume,  and  thus  forming  one  great  natural  family  of 
Leguminous  plants,  which  furnish  many  of  the  most  delicious 
table  vegetables  ;  such  as  peas,  beans,  &c. 

The  orders  of  this  class  are  founded  on  the  same  circumstance 
in  respect  to  the  stamens,  which  distinguishes  those  of  the 
preceding  class. 

We  make  these  recapitulations  because  it  is  always  impor- 
tant in  the  consideration  of  a  subject,  to  have  a  few  clear  ideas 
before  you  leave  it ;  this  is  better  than  a  great  many  imperfect 
or  confused  ones.  It  would,  therefore,  be  well  in  all  your 
studies,  when  you  have  read  upon  a  subject,  to  ask  yourselves 
what  are  the  main  points  to  be  remembered ;  and  you  will 

Class  Polydelphia,  why  rejected — Recapitulation — Uses  of  recapitula- 
tions. 


252 


CLASS    SYNGENESIA. 


find  that  the  less  important  facts  or  ideas,  by  the  natural 
suggestions  of  the  mind,  will  readily  cluster  around  the  prin- 
cipal ones. 


LECTURE   XXXV. 

CLASS  XVII. — SYNGENESIA. 


Fig.  121. 


WE  have  now  arrived  at  a  class 
which  contains  a  large  portion  of  the 
vegetable  tribes,  particularly  of  those 
plants  which  blossom  in  the  last  sum- 
;mer  months,  and  in  autumn. 

The  term  Syngenesia  signifies  a 
union  of  antliers;  this  circumstance, 
you  can  readily  conceive,  forms  a  dif- 
ference between  this  class,  and  those 
which  are  distinguished  by  a  union  of 
filaments ;  hi  the  one  case,  the  tops  of 
the  stamens,  or  the  anthers,  are  united, 
while  the  lower  parts  are  separate ; 
in  the  other  case,  the' tops  are  separate  while  the  filaments,  or 
lower  parts  of  the  stamens  are  united. 

The  number  of  stamens  in  plants  of  this  class  is  mostly  5, 
distinguished  from  the  fifth  class,  not  only  by  the  union  of  the 
anthers,  but  by  the  compound  character  of  the  flowers ;  the 
latter  circumstance  is  indeed  the  essential  character  of  the 
class.  In  some  cases,  plants  with  five  stamens  have  their  an- 
thers  united,  but  having  no  other  resemblance  to  those  of  the 
class  Syngenesia,  they  are  retained  in  the  fifth  class :  the 
violet  and  impatiens  are  examples  of  this  irregularity.  This 
is  an  instance  in  which  the  artificial  arrangement  is  made  to 
bend  to  natural  resemblances. 

The  general  characters  of  the  compound  flowers  have  al- 
ready been  exhibited  to  you,  in  connexion  with  some  of  the 
most  important  and  distinct  natural  families.  The  analysis  of 
the  daisy,  which  was  illustrated  by  a  dissected  plant,  must 
have  impressed  upon  your  minds  the  peculiarities  which  distin- 
guish this  from  all  other  classes. 

You  will  recollect  that  a  compound  flower  is  a  collection  of 
little  flowers  or  florets,  placed  upon  the  same  receptacle,  and 
within  one  common  calyx ;  add  to  this  description  the  five 


Class  Syngenesia— What  case  is  mentioned  in  which  the  artificial  arrange- 
ment is  made  to  bend  to  natural  resemblances  ? 


ORDER  SUPERFLUA.  253 

stamens,  with  their  anthers  united,  forming  a  little  tube,  and 
you  have  an  idea  of  a  syngenesious  flower. 

The  orders  of  the  class  Syngenesia  are  distinguished  by 
different  circumstances  than  are  noticed  in  any  other  class ; 
they  are  founded  on  the  situation  of  the  several  kinds  of  florets. 
We  will,  however,  before  explaining  the  orders,  remind  you  of 
the  distinction  made  in  these  florets. 

1.  Perfect,  such  as  have  both  stamens  and  pistils. 

2.  Barren,  or  staminate,  having  only  stamens. 

3.  Fertile,  or  pistillate,  having  only  pistils. 

4.  Neutral,  destitute  of  either  stamens  or  pistils. 

They  are  also  distinguished  into  ligulate,  having  a  flat  strap, 
shaped  corolla,  and  tubular,  having  a  tubular  corolla. 

The  five  orders  in  this  class,  depend  on  the  various  situations 
of  these  different  kinds  of  florets. 

JEqualis. 

The  First  Order  contains  those  compound  flowers  which 
have  all  the  florets  perfect ;  this  order  is  divided  into  sections. 

1st.  Containing  such  as  have  ligulate  florets ;  as  the  dande- 
lion, lettuce,  and  vegetable-oyster. 

2d.  Florets  tubulous,  with  flowers  in  a  head ;  as  the  thistle, 
and  false  saffron  (Carthamus). 

3d.  Florets  tubulous,  without  rays ;  as,  bone-set,  or  thorough, 
wort  (Eupatorium). 

You  will  find  no  difficulty  in  procuring  for  analysis,  either 
dandelions  or  thistles ;  bone-set  is  also  abundant ;  therefore, 
for  farther  investigation  of  this  order  we  will  refer  you  to  the 
plants  themselves,  aided  by  the  generic  and  specific  descriptions 
provided  to  assist  you  in  analyzing  plants. 

Superflua. 

The  Second  order  presents  us  with  such  compound  flowers 
as  have  the  florets  of  the  disk  perfect,  and  those  of  the  ray 
only  pistillate,  each  pistil  producing  a  perfect  seed.  The  term 
superflua  is  used,  because  the  pistils  in  the  ray,  being  unaccom. 
panied  with  stamens,  are  said  to  be  unnecessary  or  superfluous. 

This  order  is  divided  into  two  sections. 

1st.  Flowers  without  rays,  or  the  ray  florets  indistinct ;  here 
we  find  the  tansey,  and  the  life  everlasting;  of  the  latter  there 
are  many  species. 

The  ARTEMISIA,  a  genus  which  includes  the  wormwood  and 
southern. wood,  both  exotics,  has  but  few  native  species.  The 
name  Artemisia  is  often  improperly  given  to  an  ornamental 

Orders,  how  distinguished  ?— Different  kinds  of  florets— Order 
divided  into  three  sections—Order  Superflua— Two  Sections— Artemisia. 

22 


254  CLASS  SYNGENESIA. 

plant,  which  belongs  to  the  genus  Chrysanthemum.  "  The 
genus  Artemisia,  was  named  in  honour  of  Artemis,  the  wife  of 
Mausolus,  whose  monument  was  one  of  the  wonders  of  the 
world  (hence  our  word  Mausoleum).  Pliny  observes  that  wo- 
men have  had,  also,  the  glory  of  giving  names  to  plants."* 

The  3d  section  of  the  order  Superflua,  includes  sucli  flowers 
as  have  flat  or  ligulate  petals,  arranged  around  the  middle  or 
disk  of  the  flower  ;  these  are  called  rays.  The  receptacles  in 
this  section  are  naked,  that  is,  the  top  of  the  stem  is  found,  on 
removing  the  different  parts  of  the  blossom,  to  be  smooth,  with- 
out  any  hairs  or  down,  such  as  you  may  see  on  the  dandelion 
after  the  petals  have  fallen  off.  We  here  find  the  star  flower 
(ASTER),  a  genus  in  which  120  species  have  already  been  dis- 
covered, more  than  '60  of  which  are  natives  of  the  U.  States. 
These  are  not  often  seen  in  blossoVn  until  June  and  July  ;  they 
appear  in  flower  until  the  approach  of  winter.  Many  of  these 
flowers  are  highly  beautiful  ;  the  different  species  present  a 
great  variety  of  rich  and  delicate  colouring,  from  the  dark  blue, 
purple,  and  red,  to  a  pale  blue,  a  light  violet  and  pink,  and  in 
many  cases,  a  pure  white.  In  some,  the  yellow  prevails  ; 
sometimes  they  are  variegated,  and  often  the  disk  and  ray  are 
of  different  colours.  After  having  once  become  familiar  with 
the  Aster  genus,  you  will  seldom  fail  to  distinguish  it ;  but  it  is 
often  difficult  to  determine  the  species.  If  you  meet  with  ob- 
stacles in  this,  you  are  not  to  consider  your  time  as  lost ;  com- 
parison  and  research  strengthen  the  mind,  and  the  greater 
difficulties  you  overcome,  the  greater  will  be  the  advantage, 
in  thus  accustoming  yourselves  to  nice  comparisons,  and  close 
investigations. 

The  golden  rod  (SOLIDAGO)  is  a  numerous  genus ;  the  dif- 
ferent species  are  mostly  yellow ;  in  one  section  of  these  plants 
the  flowers  are  arranged  in  one-sided  racemes,  in  another  they 
form  small  and  irregular  clusters.  This  genus  will  also  afford 
an  opportunity  of  strengthening  the  mental  faculties  by  over- 
coming difficulties ;  for  its  numerous  species  are  in  most  cases 
so  faintly  distinguished,  as  to  require  some  patience  and  appli- 
cation to  trace  out  the  specific  differences. 

The  genus  CHRYSANTHEMUM  contains  the  common  daisy, 
sometimes  called  ox-eye  ;  it  also  includes  many  splendid  foreign 
plants,  mostly  of  Chinese  origin.  The  mountain  daisy  (Bellis) 
is  the  flower  which  you  were  taught  to  analyze  under  the  head 
of  compound  flowers. 

•  Thornton's  British  Flora. 

Aster — Advantages  of  overcoming  difficulties  in  the  analysis  of  plants — 
Golden  rod — Chrysanthemum. 


CLASS  SYNGENESIA.  255 

Frustranea. 

The  Third  Order  has  the  disk  florets  perfect ;  those  of  the 
ray  are  neutral,  having  neither  stamens  nor  styles,  though  an 
imperfect  seed  is  sometimes  seen  at  the  base  of  the  florets ;  the 
name  Frustranea  alludes  to  this  imperfect  seed.  We  find  here 
the  SUN -flower  (HELIANTHUS)  ;  this  is  a  very  good  plant  to 
examine,  as  the  organs  are  large,  and  develope  very  clearly  the 
peculiar  character  of  the  class  Syngenesia. 

fig.  121,  a,  represents  the  flower  of  the  Coreopsis;  b  a  floret 
of  the  disk,  with  its  bifid  stigma  above  the  tube,  formed  by  the 
united  anthers  ;  c  shows  a  ray  floret,  which  is  neutral. 

In  this  order  is  the  CENTAUREA  benedicta,  or  blessed  thistle,  a 
native  of  Spain,  which  received  its  name  on  account  of  some 
extraordinary  virtues  which  it  was  thought  to  possess,  such  as 
being  a  remedy  for  the  plague,  with  which  warm  countries  are 
often  afflicted  ;  at  present  this  plant  is, not  much  valued. 

Necessaria. 

The  Fourth  Order  includes  plants  in  which  the  rays  only 
are  fertile  or  pistillate,  and  the  disk  florets  are  barren  or  sta- 
minate.  We  find  here  the  marygold  (CALENDULA). 

Segregata. 

The  Fifth  Order  contains  a  few  genera,  with  each  floret  hav- 
ing a  calyx  proper  to  itself,  besides  a  common  calyx  including 
the  whole  of  the  florets  which  make  up  the  flower  ;  this  may 
be  called  a  doubly  compound  flower.  The  only  plant  of  this 
order  yet  discovered  in  the  United  States  is  the  elephant's-foot 
(ELEPHANTOPUS),  a  low,  hairy  leaved  plant ;  with  purple,  ligu- 
late  florets. 

We  have  now  completed  a  survey  of  the  orders  of  the  class 
Syngenesia ;  the  plants  which  it  contains  are  almost  wholly 
referred  to  the  natural  order  Compositse  or  compound  flowers  ; 
by  Jussieu,  they  are  subdivided  into  three  orders. 

Divisions  of  Compound  Flowers  by  Jussieu. 

1st,  with  florets  all  ligulate  and  perfect,  leaves  alternate,  hav- 
ing milky  juice,  corollas  mostly  yellow  ,•  this  includes  the  dan- 
delion and  lettuce. 

2d  order  includes  all  compound  flowers  with  tubular  corollas, 
with  receptacles  fleshy  and  chaffy,  egret  stiff  and  bristly,  leaves 
often  with  fwvrsh  prickles,  flowers  in  a  head  ;  this  includes  the 
thistle,  burdock,  and  false  saffron. 

3d  order  includes  such  compound  flowers  as  have  their  inflo- 

Order  Frustranea— Sun-flower-  Explain  Fig.  120— Blessed  thistle— Order 
Necessaria— Order  Segregate,  Elephant's  foot— Order  Composite— Jussieu's 
division  of  compound  flowers. 


256  CLASS  SYNGENESIA. 

rescence  clustered  in  a  corymb ;  as  the  life-ever-lasting,  bone- 
set,  and  aster. 

The  plants  of  the  class  Syngenesia,  are  in  general,  easily 
recognized  at  the  first  glance ;  there  is  something  about  them 
besides  their  compound  character  which  distinguishes  them  from 
all  other  plants.  One  botanist  observes,  that  they  have  a  kind 
of  "  weed-like  appearance,  notwithstanding  the  beauty  of  their 
colouring  ;  the  stems  and  leaves  are  often  rough,  and  they 
seem  to  have  been  less  completely  reclaimed  from  their  savage 
state,  than  most  other  plants,  with  the  exception  of  the  Cryp- 
togamous  class."* 

Not  many  of  the  plants  of  this  class  are  poisonous ;  it  is 
remarked  that  milky  plants  are  generally  so,  but  those  of  this 
class  are  exceptions.  The  lettuce,  however,  contains  a  nar- 
cotic principle,  and  opium  may  be  made  from  it.  The  dande- 
lion, the  eupatorium,  the  chamomile,  and  wormwood,  with 
many  other  plants  of  this  class  are  valued  for  medicinal 
properties. 

The  Syngenesious  plants  are  particularly  abundant  in  our 
own  country,  and  you  will  never  find  difficulty  in  procuring 
specimens.  If  you  commence  botanical  studies  with  the  flow, 
era  of  spring,  nature  gradually  presents  you  with  those  that  are 
more  difficult  to  investigate.  This  class,  it  has  been  before  re- 
marked, are  chiefly  in  blossom  in  the  latter  part  of  the  season. 
Being  previously  prepared  by  a  knowledge  of  the  general  prin- 
ciples of  classification,  and  observations  of  plants,  you  will  no 
doubt  derive  pleasure  from  the  study  of  the  class  Syngenesia ; 
though  were  you  to  commence  a  course  of  botany  with  these 
plants,  you  would  feel  as  if  thrown  amidst  a  chaos  of  facts, 
without  any  clue  to  their  classification. 

*  Barton. 


Plants  of  this  class  easily  recognized — Many  are  valued  for  medicinal  pro- 
perties—Found in  the  latter  part  of  the  season. 


CLASS  GYNANDRIA.  257 

LECTURE  XXXVI. 

CLASS  XVIII. — GYNANDRIA. 

Fig.  122.  WE  shall  now  examine  a  class,  in 

which  an  entirely  new  circumstance 
from  any  yet  considered,  is  regarded 
as  forming  its  essential  character.  This 
circumstance  is  the  situation  of  the  sta- 
mens upon  the  pistil,  or  the  stamens 
appearing  to  grow  out  of  that  organ. 
In  some  cases  the  stamens  appear  to 
proceed  from  the  gerrn,  in  others,  from 
the  style.  There  is  sometimes  diffi- 
culty in  deciding  as  to  the  number  of 
stamens,  for  they  are  not  here,  as  in  the  other  classes,  dis- 
tinct-organs, but  in  some  cases  mere  collections  of  glutinous 
pollen. 

Monandria 

The  orders  in  this  class,  as  in  Monadelphia  and  Diadelphia, 
depend  on  the  number  of  stamens,  or  of  those  singular  collec- 
tions of  pollen  which  are  called  stamens.  The  first  order  of  the 
18th  class  contains  such  plants  as  have  butane  stamen,  oc  two 
masses  of  glutinous  pollen,  equal  to  one  stamen  ;  this  order  is 
divided  into  sections,  which  relate  to  the  manner  in  which  the 
anther  is  attached  to  the  style  ;  as,  whether  it  is  easily  separa- 
ted, whether  the  anther  grows  upon  the  top  of  the  stigma,  and 
to  the  shape  of  the  masses  of  pollen,  which  are  called  the  anther. 
The  Orchis  plants  form  an  important  part  of  the  class  Gynan- 
dria ;  most  of  these  are  perennial,  and  grow  in  moist  and  shady 
places  ;  some  of  them  are  parasites,  adhering  to  the  bark  of 
trees  by  their  fleshy  fibrous  roots.  The  roots  sometimes  con- 
sist of  two  solid  bulbs,  in  other  cases,  they  are  o'blong,  fleshy 
substances,  tapering  towards  the  ends,  like  the  fingers  of  the 
hand.  These  plants  are  in  the  family  ORCHIDE.E,  so  called 
from  Orchis,  a  name  derived  from  a  Greek  word,  signifying 
an  olive-berry,  on  account  of  the  root  being  round,  like  that 
fruit.  The  Orchis  family  is  not,  however,  confined  to  this  one 
genus,  but  includes  the  ARETHUSA  and  several  other  genera. 
The  distinguishing  characters  of  this  natural  family  are  a  co- 
roll^  above  the  germ,  5  petals,  3  external  and  2  internal. 
There  is  also  in  each  corolla  a  petal-like  organ,  called  the,  lip, 
which  varies  in  form  and  direction,  anthers  always  1  or  2,  and 

Class  Gynandria — Orders— Orchiclese — -Distinguishing  characters  of  this 
family. 

22* 


258  ORDER  PENTANDRIA. 

from  1  to  4  celled,  sessile,  or  sitting  upon  the  side  or  apex  of 
the  style ;  the  pollen  is  easily  removed  from  the  cells  in  glutin- 
ous masses ;  the  styles  are  simple,  with  viscous  stigmas  of  va- 
rious forms  and  positions.  The  capsules  are  1  celled,  3  valved, 
3  keeled ;  seeds  are  numerous  and  dust-like,  clasping  the  stem 
like  the  leaves  of  grasses.  The  stems  or  scapes  are  simple, 
undivided,  and  the  flowers  are  arranged  in  spikes  or  racemes. 

The  family  Orchidese  is  in  the  4th  class  of  Jussieu's  method, 
having  monocotyledonous  seeds,  and  stamens  epigynous,  or  above 
the  germ.  The  flowers  of  this  family  are  remarkable  for  their 
irregular,  picturesque,  and  we  might  add,  grotesque  appear- 
ance ;  some  present  the  figure  of  a  fly,  others  of  a  spider,  a 
bird,  and  even  of  the  human  figure.  It  would  seem  too,  that 
the  freaks  of  these  vegetable  beings  are  not  designed  for  our 
observation,  for  they  are  as  curious  in  their  choice  of  habita- 
tions as  in  their  external  forms  ;  preferring  wildness,  barren- 
ness and  desolation  to  the  fostering  care  of  man,  or  the  most 
luxuriant  soil.  It  is  in  forests  of  the  equatorial  regions,  that 
these  plants  appear  in  the  greatest  perfection.  The  aromatic 
vanilla  is  obtained  from  the  fruit  of  a  climbing  orchis  of  those 
regions. 

The  Orchis  genus  has  a  nectary  in  the  shape  of  a  horn  ;  its 
corolla  is  somewhat  ringent,  the  upper  petal  vaulted,  the  lip  is 
spreading,  the  2  masses  of  pollen  are  concealed  at  the  sides,  by 
little  sacs,  or  hooded  hollows  of  the  stigma. 

Fig.  122  represents  a  flower  of  this  genus ;  a,  shews  the  two 
masses  of  pollen,  brought  out  from  the  cells  of  the  anther  which 
is  attached  to  the  pistil. 

Diandria. 

The  2d  order  contains  the  ladies'  slipper  (CYPRIPEDIUM)  ; 
the  nectary  or  lip  is  large,  inflated,  and  resembles  a  slipper. 
We  have  several  species  of  this  curious  plant,  some  of  which 
are  yellow,  some  white,  and  others  purple. 
«  Pentandria. 

The  5th  order  contains  the  milk-weed  (ASCLEPIAS),  which 
by  some  has  been  placed  in  the  fifth  class,  on  the  supposition 
that  the  stamens  did  not  proceed  from  the  pistil.  In  order  to 
assist  you  to  understand  these  flowers,  we  will  present  you  with 
a  very  plain  and  simple  description,  from  a  manuscript  belong- 
ing to  an  American  botanist,*  who  has  devoted  many  years  in 
attention  to  scientific  pursuits,  and  has  particularly  examined 
into  the  character  of  the  plants  we  are  now  considering.  He 
says,  "  I  select  the  milk- weed  for  exercising  you  in  the  Gram- 

*  Professor  Eaton. 

Orchis — Ladies'  slipper — Order  Pentandria. 


^  ORDER  PENTANDRIA.  259 

mar  of  Fructification,  because  it  will  lead  you  into  a  very  nice 
investigation  of  that  kind  of  flower  whose  anthers  produce  glu- 
tinous pollen ;  and  I  now  apprize  you,  that  the  stamens  are 
generally  obscure,  and  difficult  to  ascertain  correctly  in  such 
cases,  particularly  in  the  flowers  of  the  Orchis  tribe. 

"  Take  one  of  those  heads  of  flowers  from  the  milk-weed 
(ASCLEPIAS),  which  are  so  common  in  the  months  of  June  and 
July ;  you  will  perceive  that  each  flower  grows  upon  a  little 
stalk,  and  that  all  these  stalks  proceed  from  the  same  centre, 
like  the  braces  of  an  umbrella ;  which  answers  to  the  definition 
given  of  an  umbel  inflorescence. 

"  The  most  conspicuous  parts  of  a  single  flower,  are  five  up- 
right  substances,  and  five  petals  reflexed  and  lying  down  close' 
to  the  stem ;  lift  up  those  petals,  and  you  will  find  a  calyx  con- 
sisting of  five  small  narrow  leaves. 

"  You  will  now  have  ascertained  that  the  inflorescence  is  an 
umbel,  that  the  calyx  consists  of  five  leaves,  and  the  corolla  of 
five  reflexed  petals. 

"  As  the  five  upright  substances,  with  a  little  horn  in  the  cen- 
tre of  each,  have  not  the  appearance  of  stamens,  although  they 
are  next  in  course  to  the  petals,  you  may  at  first  be  at  a  loss 
what  to  call  them ;  but  I  will  here  give  you  Linnreus'  name 
for  every  thing,  whether  inside  or  outside  of  the  corolla,  if  it 
be  neither  "-alyx,  stamen,  nor  pistil,  of  whatever  form  and  size 
it  may  be  ;  he,  having  found  that  such  parts  generally  secrete 
a  sweet  liquid,  calls  them  all  by  the  general  name  nectaries ; 
such  as  the  shoe  part  of  the  ladies'  slipper,  the  spur  of  the  nas- 
turtion,  &c.  Now  pull  off  all  the  nectaries,  and  examine  the 
part  which  they  encircled.  You  will  observe  five  shelly  pro- 
jections between  where  the  nectaries  stood ;  between  these  are 
seeds  lying  very  close,  which  you  must  peel  off  carefully  with 
a  sharp  pointed  knife,  so  as  not  to  disturb  what  is  under  them. 
You  will  probably  find  some  difficulty  in  effecting  this  at  the 
first  trial,  but  you  cannot  proceed  in  your  examination  until  it 
be  accomplished. 

"  Next,  examine  what  is  left  with  your  magnifying  glass, 
though  you  may  see  the  parts  without  a  glass ;  you  will  dis- 
cover a  lobe  hanging  down  from  each  side  of  the  five  shelly 
projections,  resembling  bees'  wax  in  appearance  ;  these  are  the 
anthers  with  glutinous  pollen ;  as  the  two  lobes  hang  to  the 
branches  of  a  single  stamen,  though  very  unlike  stamens  in 
other  cases,  they  are  properly  the  double  anther  of  a  single 
stamen.  The  thick  substance  from  which  the  stamens  proceed, 
is  the  stigma,  consequently,  the  milk-weed  is  placed  in  this 
class,  GYNANDRIA  ;  the  orders  in  this  class  are  distinguished 

Eaton's  description  of  the  milk-weed. 


260  CLASS  GYNANDRIA. 

like  the  preceding  classes,  consequently,  the  five  stamens  place 
it  in  the  order  PENTANDRIA.  The  large  thick  stigma  has  the 
appearance  of  a  germ  or  pericarp ;  but  if  you  pull  off  the  stig- 
ma, you  will  discover  two  pericarps  under  it,  of  a  different 
structure  from  that  of  the  stigma ;  perhaps  you  will  never  meet 
with  a  stigma  in  any  other  flower,  so  large  in  proportion  to  its 
other  parts  as  in  the  milk-weed.  The  anthers  are  pressed 
close  to  the  side  of  the  stigma  by  the  valves  or  scales,  and  the 
glutinous  pollen  probably  is  absorbed  by  it ;  by  which  means 
the  seed  is  fertilized,  as  in  cases  where  the  pollen  is  a  dry  pow- 
der. The  manner  in  which  either  kind  of  pollen  operates  upon 
the  stigma,  is  totally  inexplicable  ;  we  know  nothing  more  of 
the  subject,  than  that  no  seed  is  ever  perfected  without  it,  in 
any  species  of  vegetables." 

No  farther  remarks  on  the  character  of  this  plant  could  be 
of  use,  after  the  clear  and  plain  description  just  given ;  you  will 
have  no  difficulty  in  procuring  specimens  of  this  plant  for  analy- 
sis ;  a  variety  of  species  are  in  flower  in  June  and  July. 

The  Apocynum  or  dogsbane,  with  some  other  genera  which 
were  formerly  placed  in  the  5th  class,  are  now  classed  here. 
Hexandria. 

The  6th  order  contains  the  Virginia  snake-root  (ARISTOLO- 
CHIA  serpentaria)fO.  perennial  plant,  with  brown  fibrous  roots  ; 
it  is  found  in  shady  woods,  from  New  England  to  Florida  :  the 
root  is  highly  valued  in  medicine ;  it  possesses  an  aromatic 
smell,  somewhat  similar  to  spruce.  It  is  said  to  have  been 
found,  by  a  chemical  analysis,  to  contain  "pure  camphor,  a  re- 
sin, a  bitter  extractive,  and  a  strong  essential  oil."*  It  was 
used  by  the  Indians  as  a  remedy  for 'the  bite  of  a  snake  ;  from 
this  circumstance  is  derived  its  name.  This  plant  has  medical 
properties  unlike  the  POLYGALA  senega,  or  Seneca  snake-root, 
and  the  mistaking  one  for  the  other  might,  in  critical  stages  of 
disease,  be  attended  with  fatal  consequences. f 
Decandria. 

In  the  10th  Older  we  find  the  wild  ginger  (ASARUM)  ;  this  is 
a  native  plant,  so  low  that  its  flowers  are  almost  concealed  in 

*  Rafinesque's  Medical  Flora. 

t  A  physician  prescribed  for  an  infant  the  Seneca  snake-root  (POLYGALA 
senega),  as  a  medicine  in  a  case  of  extreme  sickness ;  an  ignorant  apothecary 
sent  in  answer  to  the  prescription,  the  Virginia  snake-root  (ARISTOLOCHIA 
serpentaria).  The  physician  had  fortunately  remained  to  inspect  the  medicine 
•which  he  had  ordered,  and  the  mistake  was  seasonably  discovered ;  this  in- 
stance shows  the  importance  of  botanical  knowledge,  particularly  in  those 
who  attempt  to  deal  in  medicine  ?  had  the  mother  of  the  child  understood 
botany,  the  mistake  would  have  been  discovered  although  the  physician  had 
not  been  present. 

Order  Hexandria — Virginia  snake-root — Seneca  snake-root — Wild  ginger. 


CLASS  MONCECIA.  261 

the  ground ;  the  roots  are  creeping  and  aromatic,  having  the 
taste  and  smell  of  the  snake-root  (Aristolochia). 

We  have  now  finished  a  review  of  the  class  Gynandria ;  al- 
though many  species  of  it  are  native  to  this  country,  you  will 
not  so  readily  procure  specimens  of  this  as  of  most  other  native 
plants.  The  ladies'  slipper,  milk-weed,  and  dogsbane,  you 
can  often  find,  but  many  of  the  plants  of  this  family,  particu- 
larly  the  Orchis  tribe,  opposing  all  attempts  at  cultivation,  are 
to  be  found  only  in  the  depths  of  the  forest,  or  places  little  fre- 
quented by  man ;  we  may,  in  this  respect,  compare  them  to  the 
aboriginal  inhabitants  of  America,  who  seem  to  prefer  their 
own  native  wilds  to  the  refinements  and  luxuries  of  a  civilized 
life. 


LECTURE  XXXVII. 
CLASS  XIX. — MONCECTA,  AND  XX. — DICECIA. 

IN  all  the  classes  hitherto  examined,  we  have  found  perfect 
flowers,  that  is,  those  which  presented  the  two  important  or- 
gans on  which  the  artificial  system  is  founded.  In  the  first 
ten  classes,  we  had  only  to  count  the  stamens  to  determine  the 
class,  and  the  pistils  to  ascertain  the  order. 

In  the  two  next  classes,  we  observed  whether  the  stamens 
grew  upon  the  calyx  or  the  receptacle,  and  as  before,  counted 
the  styles  to  ascertain  the  order. 

In  the  two  next  classes,  each  having  two  orders,  we  were 
guided  by  the  comparative  length  of  the  stamens,  and  certain 
appearances  of  the  seeds,  in  one  class,  and  of  the  seed  vessel 
in  the  other. 

We  next  found  two  classes,  where  connexion  of  stamens  by 
means  of  filaments  was  the  essential  character,  and  whose  or- 
ders depended  upon  the  number  of  stamens. 

In  the  great  class  of  compound  flowers,  we  regarded  chiefly 
the  circumstance  of  united  anthers ;  the  orders  being  founded 
upon  certain  circumstances  relative  to  the  little  flowers  (florets), 
which  compose  the  whole  flower. 

The  class  which  was  the  subject  of  our  last  lecture,  present- 
ed us  with  the  stamens  in  a  new  situation ;  viz.  growing  out 
from  the  pistil,  and  the  orders  were  reckoned  according  to  the 
number  of  these  strange  looking  stamens,  each  one  of  which  in 
general  is  formed  of  two  masses  of  glutinous  pollen. 

Our  present  inquiry  is  to  be  directed  to  two  classes,  in  which 

Concluding  remarks— Recapitulation— Two  classes  now  to  be  considered. 


262 


CLASS  MONCECIA. 


the  flowers  are  imperfect,  or  both  stamen  and  pistil  are  not  found 
in  the  same  individual  flower.  The  stamens  are  infertile,  and 
disappear  without  any  fruit;  the  pistils  contain  the  germ,  and 
when  fertilized  by  the  pollen,  produce  the  fruit. 

Class  MoncBcia. 


Fig.  123. 


The  class  Monoecia  (one  house), 
contains  plants  where,  upon  the  same 
root,  we  find  some  flowers  containing 
only  stamens,  others  only  pistils.  The 
orders  in  this  class  are  determined  by 
the  number  of  styles  or  pistils. 


Monandria. 

In  the  first  order  is  the  Bread-fruit  tree  (  ATROCARFUS),  which 
grows  to  the  height  of  forty  feet,  having  fruit  of  an  enormous 
size,  hanging  from  its  boughs  like  apples ;  it  is  a  native  of  the 
East  Indies,  and  much  valued  for  food. 

This  plant  belongs  to  the  third  class  of  Jussieu's  method. 

Triandria. 

In  the  third  order  we  find  a  very  common  plant,  called  cat- 
tail  (TYPHA),  this  grows  in  swampy  meadows,  and  in  stagnant 
waters,  often  to  the  height  of  four  or  five  feet.  The  long, 
brown  and  hard  spike  which  grows  at  the  summit  of  the  stem 
(giving  rise  from  its  peculiar  appearance  to  the  name  Cat- 
tail),  is  the  catkin;  it  contains  in  the  upper  part,  the  staminate 
flowers,  having  neither  calyx  nor  corolla,  the  3  stamens  arising 
from  a  chaffy  or  hairy  receptacle.  The  pistillate  flowers  form- 
ing the  lower  part  of  the  spike,  produce  each  a  seed  supported 
in  a  kind  of  bristle.  This  plant  is  sometimes  used  by  the 
poorer  class  of  people  for  beds,  but  is  considered  by  physicians 
as  unhealthful  on  account  of  the  properties  inherent  in  its 
substance. 

The  sedge  or  CAREX,  is  a  numerous  genus,  of  which  nearly 
100  species  have  been  discovered  in  North  America.  It  is  a 
grass-like  plant,  but  separated  from  the  family  of  grasses, 
which  are  mostly  of  the  3d  class,  on  account  of  the  monoecious 


Class  Monoecia,  orders— Bread-fruit— Order  Triandria— Cat-tail— Sedge  or 
Corei. 


ORDER  PENTANDRIA.  263 

character  of  its  flowers.  The  study  of  this  genus  alone,  might 
occupy  years ;  a  treatise  upon  it,  called  Cartography,*  has 
been  lately  published  by  an  American  botanist.  *f 

The  Indian  corn  (ZEA  mays),  is  found  in  tfiis  order.  The 
top  or  pannicle,  consists  of  staminate  flowers  only,  a'nd  of 
course  never  produces  corn;  the  pistillate  flowers  grow  in 
a  spike,  enclosed  in  a  husk ;  each  pistil  produces  a  seed 
called  corn ;  the  pistils  are  very  long,  forming  what  is  called 
silk. 

Tetrandria. 

The  4th  order  contains  the  Mulberry-tree  (MoRus),  of  the 
same  natural  order  as  the  nettle,  having  leaves  rough,  and 
flowers  destitute  of  beauty. 

Pentandria. 

The  5th  order  contains  the  genus  AMARANTHUS,  in  which  is 
a  very  common  weed,  seeming  to  have  some  analogy  to  the 
pig- weed,  not  only  in  natural  properties,  but  in  being  dignified 
with  a  name  which  forms'  a  striking  contrast  with  its  mean  ap- 
pearance. 

This  genus,  however,  contains  some  elegant,  foreign  species, ; 
one  of  which,  AMARANTHUS  melancholicus,  has  received  the 
whimsical  name  of  Love-lies-bleeding;  probably  from  the 
circumstance  of  its  long,  spiral,  red  flower-stalks,  bending  over, 
often  reclining  upon  the  ground.  Another  species  called 
Prince's  feather,  is  always  erect.  The  Cock's-comb  is  a  well 
known  plant  of  this  genus. 

The  Amaranth,  whether  from  its  being  a  good  word  to  fall 
in  with  poetical  measure,  or  from  some  fancied  intrinsic  beauty, 
has  ever  been  a  favourite  with  poets.  Milton  says  of  the 
angels,  assembled  before 'the  Almighty; 


•"  To  the  ground, 


With  solemn  admiration,  down  they  cast 

Their  crowns,  inwove  with  Amaranth  and  gold ; 

Immortal  Amaranth,  a  flower  which  once 

In  Paradise,  fast  by  the  tree  of  life, 

Began  to  bloom,  but  soon  for  man's  offence, 

To  Heaven  removed. 

With  flow'rs  that  never  fade,  the  spirits  elect 

Bind  their  resplendent  locks,  enwreathed  with  beams." 

In  Portugal  and  other  warm  countries,  the  Globe  Amaranth 
is  said  to  be  used  for  adorning  the  churches  in  the  winter. 

*From  Carex,  caricis.  t  Professor  Dewey. 

Indian  corn — Mulberry — Amaranthus — Different  species  of  the  Amaranthus. 


264  CLASS  MON(ECIA. 

•%•-•'  > 

Polyandria. 

This  order  contains  many  of  the  most  useful  and  beautiful 
of  our  forest  trees,  forming  a  group  or  family  called  Amentacea  ; 
this  was  described  under  the  15th  class  of  Jussieu's  method. 
Fig.  123,  represents  a  branch  of  the  Corylus  (Hazel-nut) ;  at 
a,  is  the  aments  or  catkins  formed  wholly  of  staminatc  flowers; 
at  £,  is  a  bract  or  scale  of  the  ament  with  adhering  stamens  ; 
at  c,  are  the  pistillate  flowers  surrounded  with  scales ;  at  d,  is 
a  pistillate  flower,  having  two  styles. 

The  oak,  beech,  walnut,  chesnut,  birch,  &c.  bear  their 
staminate  flowers  in  nodding  aments ;  their  pistillate  flowers 
are  surrounded  with  scales  for  calyxes.  These  trees  are  dis- 
tinguished by  woody,  exogenous  stems,  and  perennial,  branch- 
ing  roots. 

This  order  contains  the  genus  CALLA,  of  which  we  have 
some  native  species,  and  which  includes  the  elegant  exotic, 
CALLA  etJtiopica,  or  Egyptian  Lily.  In  this  genus,  the  flowers 
having  neither  calyx  nor  corolla,  grow  upon  that  kind  of  recep- 
tacle which  is  called  a  spadix ;  the  staminate  and  pistillate 
flowers  are  intermixed,  the  anthers  have  no  filaments,  but  are 
sessile  or  fixed  upon  the  receptacle ;  the  berries  are  one  celled, 
many  seeded,  and  crowned  with  a  short  style.  This  spadix 
thus  covered  with  the  fructification,  stands  erect,  surrounded 
by  a  spreading,  ovate  spatha  ;  this,  in  the  Egyptian  Lily,  is  of 
a  pure  white,  presenting  a  very  showy  appearance.  Without 
attention  to  the  structure  of  the  plant,  you  would  probably  sup. 
pose  the  spatha  to  be  the  corolla ;  the  leaves  are  sagittate  or 
arrow  form. 

Fig.  124. 

J 

The  CALLA  palusirisf  a 
very  common  American  plant, 
is  represented  at  Fig.  124 ;  at 
a,  is  the  spatlia,  which  is  ovate, 
cuspidate  and  spreading ;  at  bt 
is  the  spadix  covered  with  the 
fructification,  the  staminate  and 
pistillate  flowers  being  inter- 
mixed  and  uncovered ;  at  c,  is 
a  pistil  magnified,  showing  the 
c  style  to  be  very  short  and  the 
stigma  obtuse ;  at  d,  is  a  stamen 
bearing  two  anthers. 

*  From  poZiwter,  signifying  swampy,  or  growing  in  marshy  places. 

Order  Polyandria— Amentace«— Genus  Calla— Calla  ethiopica— Calla  pe- 
lustris. 


ORDER  MONADELPHIA.  265 

The  Wild-turnip  (Arum),  is  nearly  allied  to  the  Calla ;  they 
belong  to  the  family  Aroides,  which  are  distinguished  by  pecu- 
liar characteristics ;  such  as  their  mode  of  inflorescence, 
fleshy  and  tuberous  roots,  and  large,  sword-shaped  or  arrow- 
shaped  leaves. 

The  arrow-head  (Sagittaria),  is  unlike  most  of  the  Monoe- 
cious plants  in  general  appearance  ;  it  has  a  three  leaved  calyx 
and  three  white  petals,  and  is  not  unlike  the  Spider's-wort  in 
the  form  of  its  flowers.  Many  species  of  this  very  delicate 
looking  plant  may  be  found  in  autumn,  in  ditches  and  stagnant 
waters. 

Monadelphia. 

The  15th  order,  in  which  the  filaments  are  united  in  a 
column,  presents  us  with  the  Cucumber  tribe  (Cucurlitacecz) ; 
these  include  not  only  the  proper  CUCUMIS,  which  is  an  exotic, 
but  some  native  genera,  of  similar  plants  ;  we  find  here  the 
gourd,  squash,  watermelon,  and  pumpkin.  These  plants  have 
mostly  a  yellow,  5  cleft  corolla,  calyx  5  parted,  3  filaments 
united  into  a  tube,  a  large  berry-like  fruit,  called  a  Pepo  ;  this, 
in  the  melon,  is  ribbed,  and  in  the  cucumber  uneven  and  warty. 
We  find  in  the  same  artificial  order  a  very  different  family  of 
plants,  called  Coniferous,  or  cone  bearing  plants  ;  these  have 
the  staminate  flowers  in  aments,  each  furnished  with  a  scale  or 
perianth  supporting  the  stamens ;  the  pistillate  flowers  are  in 
strobilums,  each  furnished  with  a  hard  scale.  The  stems  are 
woody,  the  leaves  evergreen,  and  the  juice  resinous.  To  this 
natural  family  belong  the  pine  and  cypress. 

The  character  of  trees  may  be  studied  to  advantage  at  four 
different  seasons  :  in  winter,  when  the  forms  of  the  ramification 
can  be  seen  in  the  naked  boughs,  and  the  leaf  and  flower  buds 
examined  in  their  inert  state  ;  in  spring,  when  in  blossom  ;  in 
summer,  when  the  foliage  is  in  perfection ;  and  in  autumn, 
when,  during  the  first  stages  of  decay,  the  mellowness  and 
variety  of  tints  afford  beautiful  subjects  for  the  pencil  of  the 
painter,  and  the  investigation  of  those  who  love  the  study  of 
nature  under  all  her  forms. 

Aroides — Arrow-head— Order  Monadelphia — Cucumber  tribe — General  cha- 
raeter — Cone-bearing  plants — Best  periods  for  studying  trees. 


23 


266 


Fig.  125. 


CLASS  DIGECIA. 

Class  Diacia. 

The  class  Dicecia  (two  houses),  has 
staminate  and  pistillate  flowers  on  separate 
plants.  The  distinction  with  regard  to 
the  orders,  as  in  the  preceding  class,  is 
derived  from  the  number  of  stamens. 

There  are  no  plants  of  the  first  order. 


Diandria. 

The  2d  Order  contains  the  willow  (SALIX),  which  has  long 
and  slender  aments,  both  of  staminate  and  pistillate  flowers, 
the  two  kinds  being  on  separate  trees. 

The  order  TRIANDRIA  contains  the  fig  (Ficus),  remarkable 
for  containing  the  flower  within  the  fruit,  which  is  botanically 
considered  as  a  juicy  receptacle,  within  which  are  concealed 
the  minute  flowers  and  seeds.  The  fig  is  peculiar  to  warm 
countries. 

TETRANDRIA  contains  a  parasite  plant,  the  Misletoe ;  but 
one  species  is  indigenous  to  this  country.  The  Druids*  consid- 
ered this  plant  as  sacred  to  the  sylvan  deities.  Tradition  re- 
lates, that,  where  Druidism  prevailed,  the  houses  were  decked 
with  this  plant,  that  the  sylvan  spirits  might  repair  to  them. 

The  order  PENTANDRIA  contains  the  hemp,  hop,  &c.  Fig. 
125,  represents  the  pistillate  and  staminate  flowers  of  the  hemp 
(Cannabis  sativa) ;  at  a,  is  the  barren  or  staminate  flower,  con- 
taining five  stamens,  and  having  its  calyx  deeply  five  parted ; 
the  corolla  is  wanting.  At  £,  is  a  fertile  or  pistillate  flower 
with  its  calyx  opening  laterally ;  c,  shows  the  same  flqwer 
divested  of  its  calyx ;  the  seed  is  a  nut,  which  is  crowned 
with  two  styles.  The  hemp  belongs  to  a  family  called  Urtices 
(from  Urtica  a  nettle) ;  the  fibres  of  its  stems  are  manufac- 
tured into  cloth,  cordage  and  thread.  The  hop  produces  its 
fertile  flowers  in  large  cones  formed  of  membranous,  imbrica- 

*  The  Druids,  it  is  supposed,  derived  their  name  from  drus,  a  Greek  word 
signifying  oak,  as  it  was  in  groves  of  this  tree  that  the  priests  celebrated  their 
mysterious  rites,  and  sacrificed  human  victims  to  their  sanguinary  deities. 


Claaa  Dioecia— Willow— Misletoe— Hemp— Hop. 


ORDER  OCTANDRIA. 


267 


ted  scales ;  these  flowers  have  a  peculiar  odour,  which  is  said 
to  produce  a  narcotic  effect  upon  the  brain.  The  use  of  the 
flowers  of  the  hop  in  beer  are  well  known.  This  plant  con- 
tains a  small  portion  of  the  nitrate  of  potash  (saltpetre). 

HEXANDRIA,  contains  the  honey-locust  and  green  briar. 

OCTANDRIA,  has  the  poplar,  (POPULUS),  similar  in  natural 
character  to  the  willow.  Several  intermediate  orders  occur 
before  we  arrive  at  the  15th  order  MONADELPHIA  ;  here  we 
find  the  red  cedar  and  the  yew,  which  belong  to  the  cone 
bearing  family,  with  the  pine  and  cypress. 

We  have  now  completed  our  remarks  upon  two  classes  which 
have  imperfect  flowers.  Our  review  of  these  has  been  brief, 
when  compared  to  the  many  interesting  facts  which  presented 
themselves  in  association,  with  the  various  important  plants 
which  we  have  passed  in  rapid  succession  ;  but  this  very  mass 
of  matter  has  compelled  us  to  dwell  less  upon  particular  facts. 
We  have  now  but  one  more  class  to  investigate,  in  order  to 
complete  our  view  of  the  Linnaean  system. 


LECTURE  XXXVIII. 
CLASS  XXI. — CRYPTOGAMIA. 

Fig.  126. 


THE  twenty  preceding  classes  in- 
elude  the  Phenogamous  plants;  we 
are  now  to  consider  the  Cryptogamous 
class ;  we  here  find  the  stamens  and 
pistils  either  wholly  concealed  frcyn 
observation,  or  manifest  only  upon  the 
strictest  scrutiny.  These  plants  con- 
stitute the  first  class  of  Jussieu,  called 
acotyledonous ;  their  seed  being  desti- 
tute of  any  cotyledon. 

As  we  enter  upon  this  last  of  the  Linnasan  classes,  we  shall 
find  all  our  former  principles  of  arrangement  to  fail  us,  and  it 
might  almost  seem  as  if  we  had  entered  upon  a  new  science. 
The  class  Cryptogamia  includes  all  plants  which  do  not  find  a 
place  in  some  of  the  other  classes. 

Ferns,  mosses,  lichens  and  mushrooms  constitute  the  princi- 
pal part  of  this  class.  At  Fig.  126,  a,  is  a  fern,  of  the  genus 

Order  Hexandria — Octandria — Monadelphia — Cryptogamia. 


268 


CLASS  CRYPTOGAMIA. 


Asplenium,  which  bears  its  fruit  on  the  back  of  the  leaves  or 
fronds ;  at  b,  is  a  moss  of  the  genus  Hypnum,  showing  two  of 
its  flowers  borne  on  slender  pedicels  or  stems  ;  at  c,  is  a  genus 
of  the  Lichen  family  ;  at  d,  is  the  Agaricus,  one  of  the  most 
common  of  the  mushrooms. 

Some  writer  has  said,  that  Linnaeus,  having  arranged  the 
plants  which  would  admit  of  classification,  took  the  remainder 
and  cast  them  all  into  a  heap  together,  which  he  called  Cryp- 
togamous  ;  he  did  not,  however,  rest  satisfied  in  thus  throwing 
together  the  refuse  of  the  vegetable  world  ;  but  subdivided  this 
miscellaneous  collection  into  orders ;  or  we  might  more  properly 
say,  that  he  gave  names  to  those  divisions  already  marked  out 
by  nature. 

Of  these  orders,  which  are  natural  families  brought  together 
on  account  of  general  resemblances  and  analogies,  without  re- 
ference  to  any  one  principle,  there  are  six. 

Filices,  or  FERNS. 

The  1st  order  contains  the  Ferns  ;  their  plume-like  leaves 
are  called  fronds.  The  fruit,  mostly  disposed  in  dots  or  lines, 
grows  on  the  back,  summit,  or  near  the  base  of  the  leaf  or 
frond.  You  may  here  see  (Fig.  127)  a  delineation  of  some  of 

Fig.  127. 


the  various  modes  in  which  the  fructification  of  ferns  appears ; 
(a)  genus  POLYPODIUM  or  polypody,  with  capsules  in  roundish 
spots  on  the  back  of  the  frond  ;  (b)  ASPLENIUM,  capsules  in. 
lines  nearly  parallel,  diverging  from  the  centre  of  the  frond ; 

Orders  marked  out  by  nature — Ferns — Modes  of  the  fructification  of  ferns. 


ORDER  MUSCI.  269 

(c)  BLECHNUM,  capsules  in  uninterrupted  lines  running  parallel 
to  the  midrib  of  the  frond  on  both  sides ;  (d)  PTBRIS  or  brake? 
capsules  forming  lines  on  the  edge  of  the  leaf. 

Some  ferns  bear  their  fruit  in  a  peculiar  appendage,  as  a 
spike  or  protuberance  in  the  axils,  or  at  the  base  of  the  leaves  ; 
no  appearance  of  flowers  is  ever  presented.  When  the  brown 
or  white  dust-like  spots  are  examined  with  a  microscope,  they 
are  found  to  consist  of  clusters  of  very  small  capsules,  at  first 
entire,  but  afterwards  bursting  elastically  and  irregularly. 
Besides  attention  to  the  situation  and  form  of  the  capsules,  it  is 
necessary  to  observe  the  membrane  which  envelopes  them  ; 
this  is  called  their  involucrum.  The  seed  is  as  minute  as  the 
finest  powder,  and  so  light  as  to  be  wafted  by  the  air  to  any 
distance  or  height ;  we  thus  often  see  ferns  growing  high  on 
the  trunks  of  trees,  or  on  the  summits  of  old  buildings.  Some 
ferns  grow  to  a  great  height  in  southern  latitudes,  almost  like 
trees.  At  the  southern  extremity  of  Van  Diemen's  Land,  a 
species  has  been  found,  whose  trunks  attained  to  the  height  of 
twelve  or  sixteen  feet.  One  species  in  our  country,  ONOCLEA 
sensibiiis,  called  the  sensitive  fern,  is  said  to  wither  on  being 
touched  by  the  human  hand,  though  the  touch  of  other  sub- 
stances does  not  produce  any  similar  appearances. 

The  number  of  species  of  ferns  which  are  already  known, 
amounts  to  about  seven  hundred.  They  generally  abound  in 
moist  and  shady  situations,  but  are  sometimes  found  on  rocks 
and  dry  places  and  on  the  trunks  and  branches  of  old  trees. 
The  frond  or  leaf  of  the  fern  is  often  pinnate,  or  divided  like  a 
feather  ;  sometimes  it  is  undivided  and  resembles  a  palm-leaf. 

The  EQUISETUM  hyemale  is  known  to  housekeepers  under 
the  name  of  scouring  rushes.  The  quantity  'of  silex  contained 
in  the  cuticle  renders  it  a  good  substitute  for  scouring  sand. 

Musci,  or  MOSSES. 

The  2nd  order  contains  the  mosses,  which  are  little  herbs 
with  distinct  leaves,  and  often  a  distinct  stem ;  their  conical, 
membranous  corolla  is  called  a  calyptra  or  veil,  its  summit 
being  the  stigma ;  this  veil  clothes  the  capsules,  which,  before 
the  seed  ripens,  is  elevated  on  a  fruit  stalk.  The  capsule  is 
of  one  cell,  and  one  valve,  opening  by  a  vertical  lid ;  the  seeds 
are  very  numerous  and  minute.  In  some  genera  the  veil  is 
wanting,  which  serves  as  a  distinction  in  the  order.  The  bar- 
ren flower  of  mosses  consists  of  a  number  of  nearly  cylindrical, 
almost  sessile  anthers  ;  the  fertile  flowers  of  one  pistil,  seldom 
more,  accompanied  by  several  barren  pistils.  Both  stamens 

Sensitive  fern— Number  of  species-AVhere  they  generally 
ing  rushes — Mosses. 

33* 


270 


CLASS  CRYPTOGAMIA. 


and  pistils  are  intermixed  with  numerous  succulent  threads. 

You  may  here  observe  (Fig.  128)  the  different  parts  of  mosses ; 

Fig.  128. 


a,  represents  the  capsule ;  6,  the  pedicel  or  stem  ;  e,  the  sheath, 
which,  before  the  pedicel  grew  up,  served  as  a  kind  of  calyx, 
to  protect  the  embryo  fruit ;  d,  the  operculum  or  lid,  which, 
before  the  capsule  is  ripe,  is  covered  by  the  calyptra ;  e,  the 
calyptra,  or  veil ;  f,  the  fringe  or  teeth,  which,  when  the  cap- 
sule is  ripe,  and  has  thrown  off  its  other  parts,  often  appear 
around  its  edge^  g,  the  barren  or  staminate  flower  of  a  moss. 

The  mosses  are  generally  perennial  and  evergreen,  and 
capable  of  growing  in  colder  climates  than  most  other  vegeta- 
bles. In  Spitzbergen,  the  rocks  which  rise  from  the  surround- 
ing ice,  are  thickly  clothed  with  moss.  A  botanist  who  tra- 
yelled  in  Greenland,  counted  more  than  twenty  different  spe- 
cies without  rising  from  a  rock  where  he  was  seated. 

The  parts  of  the  mosses  which  have  been  described  are  not 
seen  without  the  assistance  of  a  good  microscope.  It  is  not  to 
be  expected  that  young  botanists  will  be  fond  of  this  depart- 
ment of  the  science,  although  those  who  become  acquainted 
with  it,  discover  much  enthusiasm  in  its  pursuit.  The  follow- 
ing interesting  remarks  on  Cryptogamous  plants  are  taken 
from  an  English  writer. 

«  Mosses  and  Ferns,  by  the  inconsiderate  mind,  are  deemed 
an  useless  or  insignificant  part  of  the  creation.  That  they  are 
not,  is  evident  from  this,  that  He  who  made  them  has  formed 
nothing  in  vain,  but  on  the  contrary  has  pronounced  all  his  cre- 
ation to  be  good.  Many  of  their  uses-  we  know  ;  that  they 
have  many  more  which  we  know  not,  is  unquestionable,  since 
there  is  probably  no  one  thing  in  the  universe,  of  which  we 
can  dare  to  assert,  that  we  know  all  its  uses.  Thus  much  we 
are  certain  of,  with  respect  to  mosses,  that  as  they  flourish 

Explain  Fig.  128 — Mosses  capable  of  enduring  cold — Microscope  necessary 
in  examining  moss  es— Remarks  of  an  English  writer. 


ORDER  HEPATIC^.  271 

% 

most  in  winter,  and  at  that  time  cover  the  ground  with  a  beau- 
tiful green  carpet,  in  many  places  which  would  otherwise  be 
naked,  and  when  little  verdure  is  elsewhere  to  be  seen  ;  so  at 
the  same  time  they  shelter  and  preserve  the  seeds,  roots,  germs, 
and  embryo  plants  of  many  vegetables,  which  would  otherwise 
perish.  They  furnish  materials  for  birds  to  build  their  nests 
with,  they  afford  a  warm  winter's  retreat  for  some  quadrupeds, 
such  as  bears,  dormice  and  the  like,  and  for  numberless  insects 
which  are  the  food  of  birds  and  fishes,  and  these  again  the  food 
or  delight  of  men.  Many  of  them  grow  on  rocks  and  barren 
places,  and  by  rotting  away,  afford  the  first  principles  of  vege- 
tation to  other  plants,  which  never  else  could  have  taken  root 
there.  Others  grow  in  bogs  and  marshes,  and  by  continual 
increase  and  decay,  fill  up  and  convert  them  into  fertile  pas- 
tures or  into  peat  bogs,  the  source  of  inexhaustible  fuel  |to  the 
polar  regions. 

"  They  are  applicable  also  to  many  domestic  purposes.  The 
Lycopodiums  are  some  of  them  used  in  the  dyeing  of  yarn,  and 
in  medicine  ;  the  Sphagnum  (peat  moss),  and  Polytriclium  fur- 
nish convenient  beds  for  the  Laplanders,  and  the  Hypnums 
are  used  in  the  tiling  of  houses,  stopping  crevices  in  walls, 
packing  brittle  wares,  and  the  roots  of  plants  for  distant  con- 
veyance. 

"  To  which  may  be  added,  that  all  in  general  contribute 
entertainment  and  agreeable  instruction  to  the  contemplative 
mind  of  the  naturalist,  at  a  season  when  few  other  plants  offer 
themselves  to  his  view. 

"  The  Fungi  have  been  suspected  by  some  to  be,  like  spon- 
ges and  corals,  the  habitations  of  some  unknown  living  beings^ 
and  being  alkaline,  have  been  classed  in  the  animal  kingdom  ; 
but  they  are  known  to  produce  seeds,  from  which  perfect  plants 
have  been  raised  ;  and  the  celebrated  Hedwig,  by  great  dex- 
terity of  dissection,  and  by  using  microscopes  of  very  highly 
magnifying  powers,  assures  us  that  he  has  discovered  both 
stamens  and  pistils,  not  only  in  this  order  of  plants,  but  in  the 
other  orders  of  the  Cryptogamous  family."* 

Hepaticce,  or  LIVERWORTS. 

The  3d  order  contains  the  Liverworts,  which  are  more  suc- 
culent or  juicy  than  the  mosses  ;  they  have^four  valved  cap- 
sules, which  circumstance,  and  that  of  tbe  capsule  not  opening 
with  a  lid,  distinguish  them  from  the  mosses.  Their  name, 
Hepaticse,  signifies  liver  ;  but  it  is  not  yet  known  whether 
*  Thornton's  Botany. 

Various  uses  of  the  mosses— Fungi— Liverworts—Derivation  of  the  name 


J72  CLASS  CRYPTOGAMIA. 

they  received  that  name  on  account  of  some  supposed  virtue 
in  curing  diseases  of  the  liver,  or  whether  it  was  because  they 
were  thought  to  resemble  the  lobes  or  divisions  of  the  liver. 
One  of  the  most  common  genera  of  this  order  is  the  Junger- 
mannia ;  you  may  here  see  (Fig.  129)  a  species  of  this,  the 
tomplanata,  with  its  parts  as  represented  under  a  magnifier. 

Fig.  129. 


(a)  A  plant  of  natural  size  in  fruit.  (6)  The  fruit  magnified, 
showing  the  sheath,  the  peduncle  rising  from  it,  and  the  cap- 
sule  at  top  not  yet  burst,  (c)  The  capsule  splitting  and  dis- 
charging the  seeds,  (d)  The  capsule  empty,  showing  its  four 
valves. 

AlgCB,  Or  SEA  WEEDS. 

The  4th  order  includes  the  sea  weeds  and  frog  spittle  ;  these 
have  leathery  fronds,  with  fine  dust-like  seed,  enclosed  in  in- 
flated portions  of  the  frond.  They  are  almost  always  aquatics, 
generally  green  or  reddish.  One  genus  of  this  family  is  the 
Fucus  (in  the  plural  Fad)  ;  these  plants  with  some  others  of 
this  order,  swim  on  the  waters  of  the  ocean.  The  FUCUS  na- 
t&nsy  sometimes  called  the  gulf- weed,  is  very  abundant  in  the 
Gulf  of  Florida  >;  and  is  found  in  various  parts  of  the  ocean, 
forming  masses  or  floating  fields,  many  miles  in  extent.  The 
plant  seems  to  possess  no  distinct  root,  though  it  perhaps  origin- 
ally vegetated  on  some  sea-beaten  shore,  from  whence  it  was 
by  accident  thrown  upon  the  ocean's  wave. 

The  Fucus  giganteus  is  said  to  have  a  frond  of  immense 
length ;  from  whence  its  specific  name,  signifying  gigantic. 

Sea  weeds— Fuel— Gulf  weed. 


ORDER  LICHENES. 


273 


You  are  here  presented  (Fig.  130)  with  a  delineation  of  three 
kinds  of  Fuci.   (a)  Fucus  nodosus  (knobbed  fucus),  this  has 

Fig.  130. 


forked  fronds.  The  knobs  which  appear  in  the  fronds,  are  air- 
bladders,  which  render  it  peculiarly  buoyant  upon  the  water. 
This  is  often  more  than  six  feet  long,  (b)  Fucus  vesiculosus 
(bladder  fucus) ;  here  the  air-bladders  are  mostly  axillary,  and 
at  the  sides  of  the  mid-rib.  It  varies  in  length  from  one  to 
four  feet.  On  account  of  its  mucilaginous  property  it  forms  a 
good  manure ;  and  in  some  of  the  countries  of  Lapland  it  is 
boiled  with  meal,  and  given  for  food  to  cattle,  (c)  Fucus  ser- 
ratus  has  a  beautiful,  serrate  or  notched  frond. 

The  Fuci,  on  burning,  afford  an  impure  soda  called  Jeefy. 

Lichenes,  or  LICHENS. 

The  5th  order  contains  the  LICHENS  ;  these  are  various  in 
texture,  form  and  colour;  they  are  leathery,  woody,  leaf-like, 
white,  yellow,  green  and  tilack.  When  wet,  they  often  appear 
like  green  herbage  ;  some  appear  on  stones  or  old  fences  and 
buildings ;  others  with  strong  green  filaments,  are  suspended 
from  branches  of  trees  and  improperly  called  mosses.  The 
fruit  of  the  lichen  consists  of  tubercles,  or  saucer-like  bodies, 
in  which  the  seeds  are  contained ;  this  may  be  seen  in  the 

Delineation  of  three  kinds  of  Fuci— Kelp— Lichens— Of  what  the  fruit 
consists. 


274  CLASS  CRYPTOGAMIA. 

following  delineation.     Fig.  131,  a,  represents,  a  lichen  of  a 
Fig.  131. 


leaf-like  appearance  ;  here  the  saucer-like  bodies  in  which  the 
leaves  are  imbedded  are  very  apparent.  b,  is  a  lichen  resem- 
bling a  drinking  glass,  c,  is  the  rein-deer  moss,  furnishing 
almost  the  sole  food  of  that  useful  animal,  so  important  to  the 
existence  of  the  Laplander.  In  the  middle  of  Europe  it  grows 
only  to  the  height  of  two  or  three  inches  ;  but  in  Lapland  it 
sometimes  attains  to  the  height  of  one  foot  and  a  half. 

Many  of  the  lichens  are  useful  on  account  of  their  colouring 
matter.  Litmus,  which  is  so  common  as  a  chemical  test  for 
acids  and  alkalies,  is  obtained  from  a  species  of  white  lichen, 
called  Orchal  or  Archil,  this  is  also  used  for  giving  a  crimson 
colour  to  wool  and  silk  ;  and  the  powder  called  cudbear,  used 
for  dyeing  purple,  is  obtained  from  lichen.  The  order  Lichen 
has  sometimes  been  included  under  one  genus  called  lichen, 
and  placed  in  the  order  Alga. 

Fungi,  or  MUSHHOOMS. 

The  6th  order  contains  the  Mushrooms,  or  fungus  plants  ; 
these  never  exhibit  any  appearance  of  green  herbage ;  they  aro 
generally  corky,  fleshy,  or  mould-like,  varying  much  in  form 
and  colour.  The  fruit  of  some  is  external,  of  others  internal. 
They  are  often  of  very  quick  growth  and  short  duration,  henco 
the  expression  which  is  often  ironically  made,  "  a  character  of 
mushroom  growth,"  when  a  person  has  suddenly  acquired 
consequence.  The  genus  Agaricus,  which  contains  the  com- 
mon eatable  mushroom,  has  a  convex,  scaly,  white  head,  called 
a  pileus  ;  this  is  supported  on  a  stalk  called  a  stipe.  On  the 
under  surface  of  the  pileus  or  cup,  are  seen  many  flesh-colour- 
ed membranes  called  gills.  These  gills  in  the  young  state  of 
the  mushroom,  are  concealed  by  a  wrapper  called  a  volva, 

Explain  Fig.  131— Uses  of  the  lichens— Order  Mushrooms. 


ORDER  FUNGI.  275 

which  is  considered  as  a  kind  of  calyx.  As  the  mushroom  be- 
comes older,  the  volva  bursts  and  remains  upon  the  stipe,  while 
the  pileus,  released  from  its  confinement,  extends  upwards,  and 
exhibits  an  uneven  appearance  upon  its  edge,  caused  by  its 
Fig.  132.  separation  from  the 

volva.  Fig.  132 
represents  the  most 
important  parts  of 
the  mushroom  ;  a, 
the  gills  running 
from  the  stipe  to  the 
circumference,  un- 
der the  pileus.  ft,  a 
young  mushroom, 
with  the  pileus  of  a 
globular  form,  and 
not  separated  from  the  volva.  c,  the  volva  or  wrapper,  burst- 
ing and  separating  from  the  pileus  so  as  to  exhibit  the  gills 
beneath,  d,  part  of  the  volva  remaining  upon  the  stipe  in  a 
circular  form,  and  called  annulus  or  ring. 

"  If  the  mushroom  be  left  for  a  time  on  a  plate  of  glass,  a 
powder  will  be  found  deposited  ;  this  is  the  seed  or  organic 
germ.  That  these  are  capable  of  germination  is  evident  tti 
cultivators,  who  now  form  mushroom  beds,  by  strewing  the 
decayed  plants  on  prepared  beds  of  manure."* 

A  species  of  the  genus  Agaricus,  is  common  in  Italy,  and 
much  valued  for  food  ;  it  is  of  a  fine  red  and  orange  colour ; 
the  ancient  Romans  esteemed  it  as  a  great  luxury.  The  genus 
Boletus  contains  the  touchwood  or  spunk,  which  is  sometimes 
used  as  tinder.  The  LYCOPERDON  contains  the  puff-balL 

It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  you  will  go  into  a  minute  inves- 
tigation of  the  Cryptogamous  plants  ;  they  are  probably  the 
least  understood  of  all  the  visible  works  of  nature.  Philoso- 
phers have  asserted  that  some  of  this  race  do  not  belong  to  the 
vegetable,  but  to  the  animal  kingdom  ;  having  discovered  in- 
sects in  mushrooms,  they  say  that  like  the  sponge  and  the  co- 
rals, these  should  be  classed  among  animal  productions.  Few, 
however,  at  present,  entertain  this  belief;  and  the  fact  of  their 
having  been  raised  from  seed  sprinkled  on  the  earth,  proves 
them  to  be  of  vegetable  growth.  A  curious  field  of  inquiry 
presents  itself  in  the  consideration  of  the  difference  between 
animal  and  vegetable  life.  This  we  shall  hereafter  partially 

*NuttaU. 

Explain  Fig.  132— Mushrooms  capable  of  germination — Different  genera — 
Opinions  of  some  philosophers  respecting  the  Cryptogamous  plants. 


276  CLASS  CRYPTOGAMIA, 

examine ;  not,  however,  expecting  to  decide  upon  subjects  which 
lie  hidden  from  the  researches  of  finite  beings  ;  but  the  rather 
to  show  you,  that  the  "  ways  of  the  Almighty  are  unsearcha- 
ble, and  past  finding  out !" 

After  what  has  been  remarked  upon  the  difficulty  of  analy- 
zing the  plants  belonging  to  the  Crytogamous  class,  you  will 
not  need  to  be  discouraged,  should  you  be  baffled  in  your  at- 
tempts to  investigate  them.  It  is  well  for  mankind  that  there 
are  philosophers,  whom  the  enthusiasm  of  scientific  pursuits 
will  lead  to  spend  years,  even  a  whole  life,  in  searching  into 
the  fructification  of  a  moss  or  mushroom ;  or  in  examining 
into  the  natural  history  of  an  ant  or  a  spider  ;*  as  thus,  dis- 
coveries are  continually  brought  forward,  which  add  to  the 
general  stock  of  knowledge.  This  is  a  kind  of  martyrdom  in 
the  cause  of  science  to  which  but  few  seem  called,  by  the 
powerful  impulses  of  their  own  minds.  Females,  in  particu- 
lar, are  not  expected  to  enter  into  the  recesses  of  the  temple 
of  science ;  it  is  but  of  late,  that  they  have  been  encouraged 
to  approach  even  to  its  portals,  and  to  dare  to  glance  upon  the 
mysteries  within. 

S  We  have  now  completed  our  view  of  the  vegetable  world, 
according  to  the  order  in  which  the  different  tribes  of  plants 
have  presented  themselves.  As  we  followed  in  the  train  of 
classification,  we  have  endeavoured  to  notice  the  most  con- 
spicuous, and  to  trace  their  natural  relations,  as  well  as  their 
artificial  arrangement. 

In  many  cases,  departing  from  the  plan  of  general  remarks, 
we  have  traced  the  natural  history  of  some  one  genus,  believing 
this  method  more  likely  to  make  a  permanent  impression,  than 
merely  general  views.  When  we  read  the  history  of  nations, 
we  often  feel  less  interested  in  the  fate  of  a  whole  people,  than 
in  that  of  some  prominent  individual :  if  the  imagination  is 
presented  with  general  ideas  only,  it  has  no  opportunity  of 
fixing  itself  upon  any  single  circumstance  in  order  to  create  a 
lively  picture  in  the  mind.  The  same  remark  may  apply  to 
natural  history.  When  you  now  look  back  upon  the  view  just 
taken  of  the  vegetable  world,  and  examine  what  impressions 
are  most  lively  in  your  minds,  you  will  probably  find  them  to 
be  respecting  some  peculiarities  of  individual  plants.  Of  this 
tendency  of  the  mind  we  should  avail  ourselves,  by  connecting 
these  particular  impressions  with  facts  which  lead  to  general 

M  have  been  gravely  assured  by  a  naturalist  of  distinction,  that  the  study 
of  spiders  is  one  of  the  moat  elegant  and  delightful  of  all  pursuits. 

Enthusiasm  of  sonic  naturalists— View  of  Classification  completed — General 
ideas  make  little  impression  on  the  mind — Tendency  of  the  mind  to  generalize. 


CLASS  CRYPTOGAMIA.  277 

principles.  Narrow  indeed,  would  be  our  mental  vision,  were 
it  to  be  confined  to  single  unconnected  observations,  laid  up 
indiscriminately  in  the  storehouse  of  thought ;  but  our  minds, 
not  by  our  own  will,  but  by  a  faculty  received  directly  from 
our  Creator,  instinctively  generalize  and  arrange  their  mass  of 
single  observations  ;  and  we  almost  without  an  effort,  perform 
that  operation  in  the  world  of  thought  within  us,  which  the 
great  Linna3us  effected  in  the  vegetable  kingdom. 


PART  IV. 

LECTURE   XXXIX. 

THE  FLOWERING  SEASON  OF  PLANTS. 
Vernal  and  Summer  Flowers. 

ON  entering  the  fourth  division  of  our  course,  we  find  before 
us  an  open  field,  freed,  in  a  great  measure,  from  the  technicali- 
ties of  science,  and  presenting  a  smooth  and  delightful  path. 
Hitherto,  we  have  been  clearing  our  way  through  difficulties, 
and  overcoming  obstacles ;  first,  we  were  obliged  to  learn  to 
analyze  plants  according  to  the  strict  rules  of  botanical  science  ; 
next  to  examine  the  organs  of  plants,  with  their  anatomy  and 
physiology  ;  we  then  investigated  the  principles  of  classifica- 
tion, as  exhibited  both  in  the  natural  and  artificial  methods, 
and  followed  the  arrangements  of  plants  as  presented  in  these 
different  methods. 

The  language  of  botany  is  now  familiar  to  you,  and  you 
may  enjoy  the  pleasant  reflection,  that  by  your  own  industry 
and  application,  you  have  elevated  your  mind  to  that  state,  in 
which  it  may  with  little  farther  effort  enjoy  the  pleasant  views 
of  the  vegetalle  kingdom  which  now  present  themselves. 
Thus  the  traveller,  having  toiled  to  gain  some  acclivity,  looks 
complacently  around,  enjoying  the  beautiful  view  before  him, 
in  proportion  as  he  has  made  efforts  to  attain  it. 

We  will  now  suppose  the  dreary  season  of  winter,  yielding 
to  the  gentle  influences  of  spring,  and  organized  nature 
awaking  to  new  life  and  beauty ;  for  animals,  no  less  than 
plants,  seem  vivified  and  quickened  by  the  returning  warmth 
of  this  delightful  season.  How  many,  wandering  through 
life  "  with  brute,  unconscious  gaze,"  have  never  made  the 
inquiry,  "  what  causes  Spring  ?"  With  the  greater  part  of 
mankind  the  ordinary  phenomena  of  nature  excite  no  interest ; 
it  is  only  when  something  unexpected  occurs,  that  they  think, 
either  of  first  or  second  causes.  But  it  is  the  main  object  of 
your  education  to  teach  you  to  reflect,  to  seek  the  connexion 

Remarks  introductory  to  the  fourth  part— What  causes  spring  ? 


VERNAL  FLOWERS.  279* 

between  causes  and  effects  ;  and  especially  to  look  through 
second  causes,  to  the  Great  Being  who  is  the  First  Cause  of 
all ;  "  himself,  uncaused." 

But  to  return  to  the  question,  "  what  causes  Spring  ?"  or  to 
state  it  in  another  form,  by  what  means  does  the  Almighty 
produce  the  changes  which  this  season  presents  ?  To  answer 
this,  we  must  refer  to  astronomical  geography,  which,  pointing 
out  the  course  of  the  sun,  shows  us  that  having  journeyed  to 
his  utmost  southern  boundary,  he  returns,  crosses  the  equator, 
and  with  rapid  strides  advances  towards  the  northern  hemis- 
phere, beaming  more  directly  upon  us,  and  increasing  the  tem- 
perature of  the  atmosphere ;  to  chemistry  we  owe  our  know- 
ledge of  the  effects  of  caloric  on  bodies ;  physiological  botany 
shows  us  the  sap  or  vegetable  blood  expanding  by  the  influence 
of  caloric,  and  every  exhaling  and  inhaling  organ  of  the  plant 
commencing  operations  under  the  same  powerful  influence. 
The  earth,  released  from  the  icy  bonds  of  frost,  turns  kindly 
to  the  mute,  but  living  children  of  its  bosom,  and  imparts  the 
maternal  nourishment,  which,  rushing  through  every  fibre  of 
the  vegetable  being,  invigorates  it  with  health  and  strength. 

From  the  first  appearance  of  vegetation  in  the  spring,  until 
the  commencement  of  winter,  nature  presents  an  ever  varying 
scene.  The  phenomenon  of  the  flowering  of  plants,*  is  in 
many  respects,  similar  to  that  of  the  putting  forth  of  leaves  ;f 
in  both,  the  same  causes  either  hasten  or  retard  this  period. 
The  putting  forth  of  leaves,  and  the  blossoming  of  flowers, 
differ  however  in  one  circumstance  ;  the  leaves  begin  by  the 
upper  leaf  buds  ;  the  flowers  by  the  lower  flower  buds  ;  stipes, 
panicles,  and  thyrses  begin  to  blossom  gradually  from  the  base 
to  the  summit.  Cymes  and  umbels  blossom  from  the  outside  to 
the  centre. 

In  plants  of  the  north,  transported  to  the  south,  the  period 
of  the  putting  forth  of  leaves  and  blossoming  is  hastened ;  in 
those  of  the  south,  carried  to  the  north,  it  is  retarded.  Even 
in  their  native  soil,  this  period  varies  in  some  degree  in  differ- 
ent seasons.  With  greater  warmth  of  temperature,  we  have 
an  earlier  appearance  of  vegetation  ;  yet  in  general,  this  vari- 
ation is  so  slight,  that  botanists  are  able  by  observation,  to  fix 
with  a  sufficient  degree  of  accuracy,  the  time  of  the  flowering 
of  plants  in  particular  latitudes  and  climates. 

The  progress  of  vegetation  varying  little  from  Latitude  40° 
to  43°  north,  the  remarks  that  we  make  on  this  subject,  may 

*  This  is  called  florescentia.  . t  Foliation. 

Changes  in  vegetation— Putting  forth  of  leaves  and  blossoming  of  flowers 
agree  in  some  respects,  differ  in  others— Plants  of  the  north  transported  to  the 
south,  and  the  reverse— Remarks  on  the  progress  of  vegetation ;  to  what  extent 
of  country  applying. 


280  FLOWERING  OF  PLANTS. 

apply  to  that  region  of  country  extending  south  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Hudson,  north  to  the  mouth  of  the  Mohawk,  eastward 
to  the  Atlantic,  and  westward  to  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

In  Ohio,  and  the  western  part  of  New  York,  the  climate,  on 
account  of  the  influence  of  the  lakes,  and  the  cold,  eastern 
winds  from  the  Atlantic  being  broken  by  ranges  of  mountains, 
is  milder,  and  vegetation  is  somewhat  earlier  than  in  New 
England  in  the  same  latitude. 

In  some  cases,  a  plant  puts  forth  leaves  and  blossoms  at  the 
same  time  ;  but  usually,  the  leaves  appear  before  the  flowers, 
probably  having  a  greater  force  to  draw  up  the  sap  than  the 
flowers,  in  which  it  rises  by  slow  degrees.  We  see  little  ap- 
pearance of  vegetable  life  as  early  as  March  ;  sometimes 
snow  covers  the  ground  nearly  or  quite  through  the  month  ; 
but  if  we  examine  the  trees  and  shrubs,  even  then,  we  may 
perceive  that  they  have  already  felt  the  vivifying  influence  of 
heat,  by  the  swelling  of  their  buds,  and  that  a  little  increase 
of  temperature  will  cause  the  embryo  flower,  or  leaf,  to  burst 
its  prison  and  come  forth. 

Vernal  Flowers. 

In  April,  the  leaves  of  trees  and  shrubs  begin  to  put  forth  ; 
a  few  flowers  show  themselves,  amid  the  damp  chilly  atmos- 
phere with  which  they  are  surrounded  ;  among  the  most  inter- 
esting of  these  harbingers  of  spring  is  the  HEPATICA  triloba, 
or  liver-leaf;  a  lowly,  modest  flower,  of  a  pale  blue  colour, 
with  beautifully  formed  three-lobed  leaves. 

The  low  anemone  (ANEMONE  nemorosa*),  with  its  pale  blos- 
soms, is  now  found  in  shady  woods  and  damp  pastures. 

Among  the  blossoms  now  to  be  seen  are  most  species  of  the 
poplar,  a  plant  in  the  class  Monaxia,  having  stamens  and  pistils 
on  separate  plants.  The  salix,  or  willow,  is  of  the  same  class : 
this  genus  includes  the  weeping  willow,  or  SALIX  tristis^ 
sometimes  called  Salix  Babylonica,  in  allusion  to  a  beautiful 
passage  in  the  psalms,  which  represents  the  children  of  Israel 
when  carried  into  captivity,  as  sitting  down  by  the  waters  of 
Babylon  to  weep,  and  hanging  their  harps  on  "  willow  trees 
that  withered  there." 

Among  the  forest  trees  now  in  blossom,  are  the  maple  and 
the  elm ;  in  the  meadows  and  moist  grounds,  the  yellow  cow- 

*Thi8  little  flower  I  have  seen  raising  its  head  amid  surrounding  snows,  on 
the  banks  of  the  Poesten  kiln,  a  romantic  little  stream  which  flows  into  the 
Hudson,  near  Troy. 

t  Tristis  (Latin)  signifies  pensive  or  sad. 


Vegetation  in  March— Flowers  of  April. 


VERNAL  FLOWERS.  281 

slip  (CALTIIA  palustris^  a  fine  example  of  the  class  Polyan- 
dria ;  and  the  adder's  tongue  (ERYTHRONIUM  dens-canis^ 
having  a  beautiful  liliaceous  flower,  which  affords  a  good  ex- 
ample of  the  class  Hexandria. 

In  woods,  and  by  the  sides  of  brooks,  is  to  be  seen  the  San. 
guinaria  or  blood- root ;  which  bears  a  white  blossom,  more 
elegant  and  ornamental  for  a  garden,  than  many  flowers  which 
are  brought  from  foreign  countries,  and  affording  from  its  root 
a  highly  valuable  medicine. 

The  CLAYTONIA,  or  as  it  is  often  called,  spring  beauty,  is 
also  to  be  found  at  this  season ;  the  dandelion  too,  you  well 
know  is  found  among  the  earliest  flowers  of  spring.  The 
garden  violet,  which  is  an  exotic,  appears  also  at  this  time  ; 
the  VIOLA  rotundifolia,  or  yellow  violet,  with  roundish  leaves 
lying  close  to  the  ground,  is  found  in  the  fields.  Besides  these, 
are  found  several  species  of  Carex,  a  coarse  kind  of  grass  ; 
the  trailing  arbutus,  EPIGEA  repens,  and  the  TRILLIUM,  which 
we  remarked  under  the  class  Hexandria,  as  a  flower  exhibiting 
great  uniformity  in  its  divisions. 

In  May,  many  species  of  the  Viola  appear  ;  there  is  some- 
times a  difficulty  in  determining  between  these  species ;  the 
distinctive  marks  seem  often  to  be  blended ;  we  are  in  such 
cases  obliged  to  place  our  plant'  under  that  species,  to  which  in 
our  judgment,  it  seems  to  have  most  resemblance. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  flowers  of  this  season,  found  in 
woods  and  meadows,  is  a  species  of  ANEMONE,  the  Windflower 
(virginiana),  a  name,  given  as  some  say,  because  the  flower 
expands  only  jn  windy  weather ;  its  petals  are  large  and 
usually  white,  the  stem  grows  to  the  height  of  two  or  three 
f6et,  and  contains  one  terminal  flower.  Several  other  species 
of  the  Anemone  are  in  blossom  about  this  time. 

The  Xylosteum,  or  fly-honey-suckle,  may  be  found  by  the 
side  of  brooks,  a  shrub  with  blossoms  growing  in  pairs ;  also 
the  UVULARIA,  a  plant  of  the  lily  family  having  a  yellow 
blossom ;  and  the  strawberry,  with  its  numerous  stamens 
growing  on  the  calyx  ;  it  has  also  many  styles,  each  one  bear- 
ing a  seed. 

The  ARONIA,  is  an  early  flower,  a  species  of  which,  the 
shad-blossom,  is  not  unfrequently  found  in  April ;  this  is  a 
shrub,  often  growing  upon  the  banks  of  brooks,  with  white 
petals,  clustering  together  in  the  form  of  a  raceme. 

Many  of  the  mosses  are  now  in  blossom  ;  these,  we  trust, 
you  have  learned  to  consider  as  presenting  much  that  is  inter- 
esting, to  those  who  understand  their  structure ;  but  you  will 

Dandelion,  &c.— Flowers  of  May— Viola— Anemone,  &c.— Mosses  now  in 
bloom. 

24* 


282  FLOWERING  OF  PLANTS. 

not  be  called  on  to  examine  the  mosses  in  the  commencement 
of  your  botanical  studies,  neither  will  they  be  likely  to  force 
themselves  upon  your  notice.  You  no  doubt  were  surprised  to 
learn  that  they  have  flowers,  and  are  considered  as  of  any 
importance ;  but  you  must  recollect  that  they  are  the  work- 
manship of  His  hand,  who  is  no  less  wise  in  the  formation  of  a 
moss,  than  in  the  creation  of  a  world.  It  is  to  be  hoped  you 
have  learned  to  look  upon  every  work  of  God  as  important, 
and  to  feel  that  our  ignorance  of  the  uses  of  many  natural 
productions,  is  not  a  proof  that  the  Creator  has  formed  aught 
in  vain,  but  of  our  own  blindness. 

The  ARUM,  or  wild-turnip,  is  now  in  blossom  ;  it  is  a  curious 
plant,  with  the  stamens  and  pistils  growing  on  a  spadix,  a  club- 
shaped  organ  surrounded  by  a  spatha ;  it  is  found  in  shady 
places.  The  root  is  valuable  in  medicine.  The  CALLA  pa- 
lustris,  or  water  arum,  which  is  placed  in  the  same  class,  is 
now  in  bloom ;  this  is  of  the  same  genus  as  the  Egyptian  lily. 

The  AQUILEGIA,  or  wild  columbine,  with  its  horned  necta- 
ries, is  found  hanging  in  rich  clusters  from  the  clefts  of  rocks. 

Flowers  of  Summer. 

The  plants  which  are  now  in  blossom  are  so  numerous,  that 
we  can  mention  only  a  few  of  the  most  common,  or  most 
striking. 

A  well  known  shrub,  the  elder  (SAMBUCUS),  is  now  found 
along  the  sides  of  hedges,  or  on  the  margin  of  brooks,  and  in 
the  meadows ;  the  RUBUS,  or  raspberry,  the  RANUNCULUS,  or 
butter-cup,  the  CYNOGLOSSUM,  or  hound's-tongue,  and  the 
TRIFOLIUM,  or  clover.  It  is  recorded  in  history,  that  when 
Saint  Patrick  went  as  a  missionary,  to  preach  the  Gospel  to 
the  pagan  Irish,  "  he  illustrated  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  by 
showing  them  a  trifolium,  or  three-leaved-grass  with  one  stalk  ; 
this,  operating  to  their  conviction,  the  Shamrock,  which  is  a 
bundle  of  this  grass,  was  ever  afterwards  worn  upon  this  Saint's 
anniversary,  to  commemorate  this  event." 

In  the  meadows  is  seen  at  this  time  the  GERANIUM  macula- 
turn^  a  showy  flower,  and  almost  the  only  American  Geranium ; 
in  the  woods,  the  splendid  ladies'-slipper  (CYPRIPEDIUM),  and 
the  wild  mandrake  (PODOPHYLLUM),  a  flower  of  curious  ap- 
pearance. 

The  genus  CONVALLARIA,  of  which  the  Solomon's-seal  is  an 
example,  may  now  be  found  ;  it  is  usually  white,  of  a  funnel- 
form  corolla.  Some  other  species,  as  the  lily  of  the  valley, 

Wild  turnip,  &c.— Flowers  of  June— Elder,  &c.— St.  Patrick's  use  of  the 
Clover — Geranium,  &c. — Trees  in  perfection. 


AUTUMNAL  FLOWERS.  283 

have  a  bell-form  corolla.  The  various  species  of  VACCINITJM, 
of  which  the  whortleberry  is  an  example,  are  now  in  blossom ; 
the  woods  are  ornamented  by  the  snowy  white  cornus,  or  dog- 
wood  flowers. 

In  the  early  part  of  June  the  foliage  of  the  trees  usually 
appears  in  perfection ;  among  the  earliest  are  the  willow, 
poplar,  and  alder  ;  next  are  the  bass-wood ;  horse-chesnut,  the 
oak,  beech,  ash,  walnut  and  mulberry,  which  are  not  all  usually 
in  full  leaf  before  the  middle  of  June. 

At  the  summer  solstice,*  a  new  race  of  blossoms  appears  ; 
as  the  roses,  pinks,  and  lilies,  with  many  other  exotics.  The 
Iris  is  found  in  stagnant  waters  and  in  gardens.  Among  na- 
tive plants  we  now  find  the  ASCLEPIAS,  or  milk-weed,  afford- 
ing a  good  example  of  the  class  Gynandria.  The  little  bell- 
flower  (CAMPANULA),  may  be  seen  nodding  over  the  brows  of 
the  rocks. 

The  brilliant  laurel  (KALMIA),  is  now  in  bloom,  also  the 
mullein,  affording  a  good  illustration  of  the  class  Pentandria. 
The  climbing  virgin's-bower  (CLEMATIS),  hangs  in  graceful 
clusters  of  white  flowers  from  the  boughs  of  shrubs  and  trees. 
The  curious  side-saddle-flower  (SARRACENIA),  which  was  de- 
scribed under  the  class  Polyandria,  is  now  to  be  found  in 
swamps  and  wet  grounds. 

More  flowers  are  in  blossom  about  the  time  of  the  summer 
solstice,  than  during  any  period  of  the  year,  until  the  blossom- 
ing of  the  autumnal  plants.  The  hot  breath  of  summer  seems 
to  wither  the  expanded  flowers,  the  earlier  ones  fade  away, 
and  the  late  ones  do  not  immediately  come  forward ;  it  would 
seem  as  if  the  earth,  having  poured  forth  for  so  long  a  time  in 
rapid  succession,  innumerable  treasures,  now  required  a  sus- 
pension of  her  efforts ;  but  with  recovered  energy,  she  soon 
begins  to  spread  forth  new  beauties  in  great  profusion  and 
brilliancy. 


LECTURE   XL. 

Autumnal  Flowers. — Evergreens. — Ancient    Superstition  re- 
specting Plants. — Various  Phenomena  of  Plants. 

THE  autumnal  flowers,  are,  mostly,  in  appearance,  unlike 
those  which  we  find  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  season.     Few 

*  When  the  sun  is  at  the  tropic  of  Cancer. 

Blossoms  appearing  at  the  summer  solstice — What  effect  does  the  heat  of 
summer  have  upon  flowers — Autumnal  flowers. 


284  FLOWERING  OF  PLANTS. 

examples'  of  the  compound  flowers  occur,  until  the  latter  part 
of  July  and  beginning  of  August ;  this  is  fortunate  for  stu- 
dents just  commencing  the  analysis  of  plants ;  were  they  to 
find  only  the  compound  flowers  at  first,  they  would  be  discour. 
aged  in  the  commencement  of  the  study ;  but  nature  seems 
kindly  to  lead  them  on  step  by  step,  reserving  the  more  difficult 
plants  until  they  have  had  an  opportunity  of  becoming  familiar 
with  the  easier  classes. 

There  is  little  difficulty  in  learning  to  distinguish  the  differ- 
ent  families  of  compound  flowers  ;  as  an  aster  from  a  solidago, 
or  a  helianthus.  But  some  of  these  families  contain  many 
species ;  and  the  chief  difficulty  consists  not  in  finding  the 
genus,  but  in  determining  the  species  with  accuracy.  Indeed 
it  is  not  to  be  concealed  that  there  is  in  this  part  of  botanical 
science  some  confusion  among  writers  ;  and  we  must  not  be 
surprised  if  we  are  not  always  able  to  bring  our  plant  exactly 
under  any  species  described. 

Among  the  fine  flowers  which  autumn  presents,  are  the 
scarlet  LOBKLIA,  or  cardinal  flower;  the  yellow  GERARDIA 
(false  fox-glove),  and  the  noble  sun-flower  (HcliarTthus).  The 
modest  LINN.EA  borealis,  so  named  from  the  great  founder  of 
our  present  artificial  system  of  Botany,  is  found  in  September; 
at  this  time  the  white  pond  lily  (NYMPILEA),  one  of  the  most 
splendid  of  American  flowers,  is  seen  whitening  the  surface 
of  the  lakes  and  ponds,  sometimes  alternating  with  yellow 
water  lily  (NUPIIAR),  a  flower  of  less  striking  elegance  than 
the  former,  but  perhaps  not  less  curious  in  its  form. 

Another  aquatic  plant,  which,  although  it  blossoms  in  sum- 
mer, continues  in  flower  until  late  in  the  autumn,  istheS.viaT- 
TARIA,  or  arrow-head,  with  a  three-leaved  calyx,  having  white 
petals,  staminate  and  pistillate  flowers  on  the  same  root ;  it  be- 
longs to  the  class  Moncecia.  The  Eupatorium,  or  thorough- 
wort  which  blossoms  in  autumn,  has  no  external  beauty  to  re- 
commend it,  but  as  a  remedy  in  diseases,,  perhaps  no  plant  is 
more  useful. 

In  remarking  the  few  flowers  which  linger  until  the  ap- 
proach of  winter,  we  see  the  hardy  dandelion,  which,  although 
one  of  the  earliest,  is  also  among  the  latest  of  the  vegetable 
tribes.  We  see  among  the  last  blossoms  of  the  season,  some 
compound  flowers  which  seem  for  a  time  to  bear  the  autumnal 
blasts,  but  "which  gradually  give  way  to  the  reign  of  winter, 
leaving  the  desolate  'fields  and  meadows  to  present  but  a 
gloomy  contrast  to  their  former  verdant  and  glowing  appear- 
ance. 

Are  they  proper  for  first  lessons  in  analysis — Which  is  most  difficult  to  as- 
certain, the  genus  or  species  1 — Various  flowers  of  autumn — Last  flowers  of 
the  season. 


ANCIENT  SUPERSTITIONS.  285 

Evergreens. 

During  the  season  of  winter  in  our  climate,  no  flowers  ap- 
pear, except  on  such  plants  as  are  shielded  from  the  inclem- 
ency of  the  weather  ;  even  the  green  house  plants  can  scarcely 
be  made  to  blossom. 

The  leaves  of  the  trees,  and  the  stems  of  all  annual  plants, 
are  also  decayed ;  some  hardy  evergreens  yet  retain  their 
cheerful  verdure.  At  Christmas,  v  the  foliage  of  the  pine, 
spruce,  and  the  beautiful  running  or  ground  pine  (LYCOPODIUM), 
belonging  to  the  family  of  Ferns,  are  found  in  perfection,  ready 
to  welcome  the  anniversary  of  our  Saviour's  birth. 

The  custom  of  decorating  churches  with  evergreens,  is  of 
very  ancient  date.  On  this  subject  an  English  writer  observes, 
"  The  evergreens,  with  which  the  churches  are  usually  orna- 
mented at  Christmas,  are  a  proper  emblem  of  that  time  when, 
as  God  says  by  the  Prophet  Isaiah,  '  /  will  plant  in  the  wilder- 
ness the  cedar,  and  the  myrtle,  and  the  olive  tree ;  I  will  set  in 
the  desert  the  fir  tree  and  pine  tree,  and  the  box  tree  together.' 
And  in  another  place,  l  The  glory  of  Lebanon  shall  come  unto 
thee  ;  the  fir  tree  and  the  pine  tree,  and  box  together,  to  beautify 
tJie  place  of  my  sanctuary ;  and  I  will  make  the  place  of  my  feet 
glorious.'  ' 

In  the  Romish  church,  which  abounds  in  external  observan- 
ces of  religion,  it  is  customary  to  bear  palm  boughs  in  proces- 
sion on  the  anniversary  of  the  day  when  Christ  went  into  Je- 
rusalem, and  the  children  strewed  branches  of  palm  trees  be- 
fore him.  In  more  northern  latitudes,  box,  pine,  olive,  and 
willows  are  used  as  a  substitute  for  real  palms,  which  do  not 
grow  as  in  Judea,  by  the  way  sides.  The  day  on  which  this 
ceremony  is  performed  is  called  Palm  Sunday. 

Superstitions  with  regard  to  the  blossoming  of  plants. 

In  the  Romish  church,  many  superstitions  exist  with  regard 
to  certain  plants  which  happen  to  blossom  about  the  time  of 
some  Saint's  days.  In  Italy  and  other  countries  in  the  south 
of  Europe,  where  these  superstitions  first  originated,  the  dead- 
nettle  being  in  blossom  about  the  time  of  St.  Vincent's  day,  a 
martyr  who  suffered  for  Christianity  under  the  Emperor  Dio- 
desian,  in  the  year  304,  the  flower  is  consecrated  to  him. 

The  winter  hellebore  is  usually  in  blossom  about  the  time  of 
the  conversion  of  St.  Paul,  supposed  to  be  in  commemoration 
of  that  event. 

What  flowers  appear  in  winter — Decorating  churches  with  evergreens — 
Palm  Sunday — Superstitions  in  the  Romish  church  with  regard  to  the  blos- 
toming  of  certain  plants. 


286  FLOWERING  OF  PLANTS. 

The  Crocus  was  dedicated  to  St.  Valentine,  as  it  appears 
about  the  period  of  that  Saint's  day,  which  is  regarded  as  pecu- 
liarly sacred  to  affection ;  St.  Valentine  is  recorded  to  have 
been  eminent  for  love  and  charity.  One  species  of  daisy  ap- 
pears about  the  time  of  St.  Margaret's  day ;  this  is  called  in 
France,  La  Belle  Marguerite,  and  in  England,  Herb  Margaret. 

The  Crown  Imperial  blossoms  in  England  about  the  18th  of 
March,  the  day  of  St.  Edward,  King  of  the  West  Saxons ; 
nature  thus,  as  was'  imagined,  honouring  the  day  with  a  royal 
flower. 

The  Cardamine,  or  our  Lady's  flower,  distinguished  for  its 
pure  white,  is  dedicated  to  the  Virgin  Mary. 

The  Mary-gold,  so  called  from  a  fancied  resemblance  of  the 
florets  of  its  disk  to  rays  of  glory,  is  also  consecrated  to  the 
Virgin. 

On  the  day  of  St.  George,  the  patron  saint  of  England, 
the 'blue  bells,  there  called  field  hyacinth,  tinge  the  meadows 
and  pastures  with  their  deep  blue  colour  ;  they  are  thought  to 
afford  an  emblem  of  the  empire  of  the  ocean,  over  which  Eng- 
land assumes  the  rule. 

The  St.  John's- wort  blossoms  near  that  saint's  day.  The 
scarlet  Lychnis,  called  the  great  candlestick,  or  candle  (  CAN- 
DELABRUM ingens),  was  supposed  to  be  lighted  up  for  St.  John 
the  Baptist,  who  was  a  burning  and  a  shining  light.  The 
white  lily  expands  about  the  time  of  the  annunciation,  afford- 
ing another  coincidence  of  the  blossoming  of  white  flowers  at 
the  festivals  consecrated  to  the  mother  of  Christ.  The  roses 
of  summer  are  said  to  fade  about  the  period  of  St.  Mary  Mag- 
dalen's day. 

The  passion  flower  is  said  to  blossom  about  Holy  Rood  day. 
Allusions  tcr  this  day  being  frequently  found  among  writers  of 
former  days,  it  may  be  well  to  in  form  you  that  according  to  the 
legends  of  the  Romish  church,  the  cross  on  which  our  Saviour 
was  crucified  was  discovered  in  the  year  326,  by  Helena,  the 
mother  of  Constantino,  who  is  said  to  have  built  a  church  on 
the  spot  where  it  lay.  The  word  Rood  signifies  the  Cross ; 
thus  this  day  is  the  day  of  the  Holy  Cross. 

It  was  during  the  middle  ages,  when  the  minds  of  men  were 
influenced  by  the  blindest  superstition,  that  they  thus  imagined 
every  operation  of  nature  to  be  emblematical  of  something 
connected  with  their  religious  faith.  Although  these  supersti- 
tions are  trifling  and  absurd,  they  are  interesting  as  connected 
with  the  annals  of  the  human  mind,  and  as  showing  us  the  ori- 
,  gin  of  many  names  of  plants.  Had  the  superstitious  monks 

During  the  middle  ages  men  imagined  the  operations  of  nature  connected 
with  their  peculiar  religious  tenets — Ignorance  of  the  monks  and  nuns. 


PHENOMENA  OF  PLANTS.  287 

and  nuns,  who  were  the  authors  of  these  conceits,  and  at  that 
time  the  most  learned  part  of  the  community,  been  possessed 
of  as  much  knowledge  as  most  children  in  our  country,  they 
would  have  known  that  plants  bloom  earlier  or  later,  accord- 
ing  to  various  circumstances  of  climate ;  and  that  a  flower 
which  in  Italy  blossoms  as  early  as  February  might  not  ap- 
pear in  England  before  April ;  while  the  day  of  the  Saint 
which  the  flower  was  supposed  to  commemorate,  would  occur 
at  the  same  time  in  both  places. 

Phenomena  of  Plants,  arising  from  changes  in  the  atmosphere. 

Plants  exhibit  some  phenomena  which  are  supposed  to 
arise  from  the  state  of  the  atmosphere  ;  accurate  observers  of 
nature  have  made  remarks  upon  these  changes  in  plants,  as 
preceding  certain  changes  of  weather.  Lord  Bacon,  who 
was  remarkably  attentive  to  all  the  appearances  and  changes 
of  natural  objects,  is  the  author  of  the  following  observations. 

"  Chickweed  (Anagallis).  When  the  flower  expands  boldly 
and  fully,  no  rain  will  happen  for  four  hours  or  upwards  :  if  it 
continues  in  that  open  state,  no  rain  will  disturb  the  summer's 
day  ;  when  it  half  conceals  its  miniature  flower,  the  day  is 
generally  showery  ;  but  if  it  entirely  shuts  up  or  veils  the 
white  flower  with  its  green  mantle,  let  the  traveller  put  on  his 
great  coat,  and  the  ploughman,  with  his  beasts  of  draught, 
expect  rest  from  their  labour. 

"  Siberian  Sowthistle  (Sonchus).  If  the  flowers  of  this  plant 
keep  open  all  night,  rain  will  certainly  fall  the  next  day. 

"  Trefoil  (Hedysarum).  The  different  species  of  trefoil 
always  contract  their  leaves  at  the  approach  of  a  storm :  hence 
these  plants  have  been  termed  the  Husbandman's  Barometer. 

"  African  Mary-gold.  If  this  plant  opens  not  its  flowers  in 
the  morning  about  seven  o'clock,  you  may  be  sure  it  will  rain 
that  day  unless  it  thunders. 

"  White  tliorns  and  dog-rose  bushes.  Wet  summers  are 
generally  attended  with  an  uncommon  quantity  of  seed  on 
these  shrubs,  whence  their  unusual  fruitfulness  is  a  sign  of  se- 
vere winter." 

Beside  the  above,  there  are  several  plants,  especially  those 
with  compound,  yellow  flowers,  which  during  the  whole  day, 
turn  their  flowers  Cowards  the  sun,  viz.  to  the  East  in  the  morn- 
ing, to  the  South  at  noon,  and  to  the  West  towards  evening. 
This  is  very  observable  in  the  sowthistle,  Sonchus  arvensis ; 
and  it  is  a  well  known  fact,  that  a  great  part  of  the  plants  in 

Various  phenomena  of  plants — Lord  Bacon's  observations — Changes  of 
flowers  indicating  changes  of  weather — Plants  which  turn  towards  the  sun. 


288  PHENOMENA  OF  PLANTS. 

a  serene  sky,  expand  their  flowers,  and  as  it  were  with  cheer- 
ful  looks  behold  the  light  of  the  sun  ;  but  before  rain,  they  shut 
them  up,  as  the  tulip. 

The  flowers  of  the  chick-wintergreen  (Trientulis)  droop 
in  the  night,  lest  rain  or  moisture  should  injure  the  fertilizing 
pollen. 

One  species  of  woodsorrel,  shuts  up  or  doubles  its  leaves  be- 
fore storms  and  tempests,  but  in  a  serene  sky  expands  or  unfolds 
them,  so  that  husbandmen  can  foretel  tempests  from  it.  It  is 
also  well  known  that  the  sensitive  plants,  and  cassia,  observe 
the  same  rule. 

Besides  affording  prognostics  of  weather,  many  plants  fold 
themselves  up  at  particular  hours,  with  such  regularity  as  to 
have  acquired  names  from  this  property.  The  following  arc 
among  the  more  remarkable  plants  of  this  description. 

Goatsleard.  The  flowers  of  both  species  of  Tragopogon, 
open  in  the  morning  at  the  approach  of  the  sun,  and  without 
regard  to  the  state  of  the  weather,  regularly  shut  about  noon. 
Hence  it  is  generally  known  by  the  name  of  go-to-bed-at-noon. 

The  Princesses'  leaf,  or  four  o'clock  flower  (Mirabilis),  in 
the  Malay  Islands,  is  an  elegant  shrub,  so  called  by  the  natives, 
because  their  ladies  are  fond  of  the  grateful  odour  of  its  whito 
leaves.  It  opens  its  flowers  at  four  in  the  evening,  and  does  not 
close  them  till  the  same  hour  returns  in  the  morning.  Many 
people  transplant  them  from  the  woods  into  their  gardens,  and 
use  them  as  a  dial  or  clock,  especially  in  cloudy  weather. 

The  Evening  Primrose  (CEnothera),  is  well  known  from  its 
remarkable  properties  of  regularly  shutting  with  a  loud  popping 
noise,  about  sunrise,  and  opening  at  sunset.  After  six  o'clock, 
these  flowers  regularly  report  the  approach  of  night. 

The  tamarind  tree,  the  water  lily  (Nymph&a),  the  mary- 
gold,  the  false  sensitive  plant,  and  several  others  of  the  Dia- 
delphia  class,  in  serene  weather  expand  their  leaves  in  the  day 
time,  and  contract  them  during  the  night.  According  to  some 
botanists,  the  tamarind  tree  enfolds  within  its  leaves,  the  flowers 
or  fruit  every  night,  in  order  to  guard  them  from  cold  or  rain. 

The  flower  of  the  garden  lettuce,  which  is  in  a  vertical 
plane,  opens  at  seven  o'clock,  and  shuts  at  ten. 

"  A  species  of  serpentine  aloes,  without  prickles,  whose  large 
and  beautiful  flower  exhales  a  strong  odour  of  the  Vanilla  dur- 
ing the  time  of  its  expansion,  which  is  very  short,  is  cultivated 
in  the  imperial  garden  of  Paris.  It  does  not  blossom  until  to- 
wards the  month  of  July,  and  about  five  o'clock  in  the  evening, 
at  which  time  it  gradually  opens  its  petals,  expands  them, 

Plants  which  hang  their  heads  at  night  and  in  storms — The  Go-to-bed-at>> 
noon — The  four  o'clock — Evening  Primrose. 


HABITS  OF  PLANTS.  289 

droops  and  dies.  By  ten  o'clock  the  same  night,  it  is  totally 
withered,  to  the  great  astonishment  of  the  spectators,  who  flock 
in  crowds  to  see  it. 

"  The  cereus,  a  native  of  Jamaica  and  Vera  Cruz,  expands 
an  exquisitely  beautiful  flower,  and  emits  a  highly  fragrant 
odour,  for  a  few  hours  in  the  night,  and  then  closes  to  open  no 
more.  The  flower  is  nearly  a  foot  in  diameter,  the  inside  of 
the  calyx  of  a  splendid  yellow,  and  the  numerous  petals  are 
of  a  pure  white.  It  begins  to  open  about  seven  or  eight 
o'clock  in  the  evening,  and  closes  before  sunrise  in  the 
morning. 

"  The  flower  of  the  dandelion  possesses  very  peculiar  means 
of  sheltering  itself  from  the  heat  of  the  sun,  as  it  closes  entirely 
whenever  the  heat  becomes  excessive.  It  has  been  observed 
to  open  in  summer  at  half  an  hour  after  five  in  the  morning, 
and  to  collect  its  petals  towards  the  centre  about  nine  o'clock."* 

Linnaeus  has  enumerated  forty-six  flowers  which  possess  this 
kind  of  sensibility  :  he  divides  them  into  three  classes. 

1.  Meteoric  flowers,  which  less  accurately  observe  the  hour  of 
folding,  but  are  expanded  sooner  or  later,  according  to  the 
cloudiness,  moisture,  or  pressure  of  the  atmosphere. 

2.  Tropical  flowers,  that  open  in  the  morning,  and  close  before 
evening  every  day,  but  the  hour  of  their  expanding  becomes 
earlier  or  later,  as  the  length  of  the  day  increases  or  de- 
creases. 

3.  Equinoctial  flowers,  which  open  at  a  certain  and  exact  hour 
of  the  day,  and  for  the  most  part  close  at  another  determi- 
nate hour. 


LECTURE  XLI. 

Habits  of  plants. — Agents  'which  affect  their  growth. —  Their 
habitations,  and  geographical  situations. — Elevation  corres- 
ponding to  latitude. 

THE  constitution  of  plants  and  that  of  animals  seems  to  fit 
them  for  particular  climates,  and  for  digesting  food  of  a  certain 
kind.  The  plant  cannot,  like  the  animal,  rove  about  in  search 
of  food  best  suited  to  its  nature,  but,  fixed  in  one  spot,  must 
receive  the  nourishment  that  there  offers,  itself.  If  this  nou- 

*  Bacon. 

Night- blooming  Cereus,  &c. — Meteoric  flowers — Tropical — Equinoctial — 
The  constitution  of  plants  fitted  for  particular  climates. 

25 


290  HABITS  OP"  PLANTS. 

rishment  is  too  abundant,  the  vessels  becoming  loaded  with 
excess,  cease  to  perform  their  accustomed  functions,  and  the 
plant  dies  of  surfeit ;  if  on  the  other  hand  the  food  offered  is 
too  little,  or  not  sufficiently  nourishing,  the  plant  dies  of  star-, 
vation. 

Yet  plants  may  be  brought  to  live  in  climates,  and  on  food 
not  naturally  suited  to  their  constitutions  ;  or  in  other  words 
their  habits  may  be  changed.  Although  we  may  suppose  that 
many  things  now  necessary  to  our  comfort  and  even  our  lives, 
are  rendered  so  by  nature ;  yet  if  we  reflect  a  moment  we  shall 
see  that  very  many  of  our  own  wants  are  the  result  of  habit. 
Did  you  never  see  the  children  of  poor  parents  running  about 
in  the  snow  with  bare  feet,  and  apparently  much  more  healthy 
than  the  little  master  or  miss  whom  a  servant  must  carry  to 
school,  for  fear  the  winds  of  heaven  may  visit  them  too  roughly  ? 
Why  does  this  difference  exist  between  individuals  of  the  same 
species  ?  It  is  owing  to  habit.  Thus  we  may  see  lingering 
almost  upon  the  verge  of  a  northern  winter,  the  nasturtion ;  but 
the  same  temperature  which  it  bears  without  injury,  would  at 
once  destroy  those  of  the  same  species  which  have  flourished 
only  beneath  a  tropical  sun. 

In  changing  the  habit  of  a  plant,  or,  as  it  is  frequently  termed, 
naturalizing  it,  the  temperature  is  the  principal  thing  to  be 
considered  ;  although  the  soil  and  the  quantity  of  moisture 
should  be  rendered  as  similar  as  possible,  to  those  of  its  native 
habitation. 

Plants  from  warm  climates  are  gradually  accustomed  to  a 
lower  temperature  by  placing  them  in  hot-houses,  then  in 
green  houses,  and  lastly  in  the  open  air.  While  the  plant  is 
going  through  with  this*  kind  of  disci pline,  an  opportunity  is 
afforded  of  observing  the  kind  of  soil  most  favourable  to  its 
growth,  the  quantity  of  moisture  which  it  requires,  the  degree 
of  light  which  seems  necessary,  and  the  kind  of  exposure  as  to 
wind  which  appears  most  favourable. 

Plants  vary  much  in  their  susceptibility  of  naturalization. 
The  horse-chesnut,  which  is  now  common  in  the  middle  and 
northern  United  States,  was  originally  brought  from  the  tro- 
pical regions.  In  these  regions,  however,  it  usually  grows  in 
grounds  somewhat  ahove  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  therefore  its 
habit,  as  to  temperature,  renders  it  in  some  degree  fitted  for 
more  northern  countries.  Orange  and  lemon  trees  cannot 
be  brought  to  bear  the  roughness  of  our  climate,  without  some 
protection. 


Remarks  on  their  habits — Temperature  considered  in  the  naturalization  of 
plants — Observations  necessary  in  the  process — Plants  vary  in  susceptibility 
•f  naturalization. 


HABITS  OF  PLANTS.  291 

In  many  cases  perennial  plants,  by  this  change  of  climate, 
are  converted  into  annual  ones  ;  that  is,  as  if  fearing  the  in. 
clemencies  of  a  cold  winter,  they  pass  through  their  successive 
stages  of  existence  with  rapidity,  and  accomplish  in  one  summer 
what  they  had  been  accustomed  to  require  years  to  perform. 
The  nasturtion  was  originally  a  shrub,  flourishing  without  cul- 
tivation on  the  banks  of  the  Peruvian  streams ;  yet  transferred 
to  this  country  it  is  an  annual  plant,  which  completes  its  term 
of  existence  in  a  few  months. 

The  habits  of  some  plants  are  with  difficulty  subdued ;  and 
it  is  by  slow  removals  that  they  can  be  made  to  grow  in  foreign 
situations.  Rice  by  a  slow  progress  has  advanced  from  Caro- 
lina to  Virginia,  and  it  is  now  cultivated  in  New  Jersey.  The 
habits  of  Indian  corn,  aided  by  climate  and  culture,  have  suf- 
fered a  still  more  remarkable  change.  After  having  been  for 
several  years  raised  in  Canada,  it  arrives  to  perfection  in  a 
few  weeks,  and  on  that  account  is  employed  by  us  as  an  early 
corn  ;  but  that  which  has  been  long  cultivated  in  Virginia,  will 
not  ripen  in  a  New  England  summer ;  yet,  originally,  the  early 
corn  of  Canada  and  that  of  Virginia  were  the  same,  both  in 
habit  and  other  properties. 

Agents  which  affect  the  growth  of  plants. 

Of  the  various  substances  by  which  vegetables  are  nourish- 
ed, water  is  thought  the  most  important.  Some  plants  grow 
and  mature,  with  their  roots  immersed  in  water,  without  any 
soil ;  most  of  the  marine  plants  are  of  this  description. 

Atmospheric  air  is  necessary  to  the  health  and  vigour  of 
plants ;  if  a  plant  is  placed  under  a  glass  into  which  no  air  can 
enter,  it  withers  and  dies. 

Most  plants  are  found  by  analysis  to  contain  a  certain  por- 
tion of  salts,  such  as  nitre,  and  muriate  of  soda,*  or  common 
salt.  It  appears  that  the  root  absorbs  them  from  the  soil,  by 
which  it  is  nourished. 

No  plants  can  grow  without  some  degree  of  heat,  though 
some  require  a  greater  portion  of  it  than  others. 

Plants  may  be  made  to  grow  without  light,  but  they  will  not 
exhibit  the  verdure,  or  any  of  the  properties  of  health.  The 
atmosphere,  which  is  contaminated  by  the  respiration  of  ani- 
mals, is  restored  to  purity  by  the  vegetation  of  plants ;  but  se- 
cluded from  light,  vegetables  are  no  longer  capable  of  convert- 
ing a  portion  of  the  fixed  air  to  their  use,  or  of  supplying  the 
atmosphere  with  the  oxygen,  on  which  its  importance  in  sup- 

*  According  to  modern  chemistry,  chloride  of  sodium. 

Some  plants  change  from  perennial  to  annual — Of  rice  and  Indian  corn — 
A  gents  which  affect  the  growth  of  plants— Water — Atmospheric  air— Salts — 
Heat— Light. 


292  HABITATIONS  OF  PLANTS. 

porting  animal  life  chiefly  depends.  By  the  action  of  light, 
the  carbon  of  the  fixed  air  is  interwoven  with  the  texture  of 
the  plants.  The  aromatic  plants,  the  clovej  cinnamon,  and  the 
Peruvian  bark,  all  owe  their  chief  excellencies  to  the  intense 
light  of  the  equatorial  regions. 

Habitations  of  Plants. 

Plants  are  not  thrown  by  chance  over  the  surface  of  the 
globe,  but  we  perceive  that  the  Creator  has  regulated  their  dis- 
tribution according  to  certain  fixed  principles ;  we  find  not  only 
a  wonderful  adaptation  of  plants  to  the  physical  necessities  of 
animals  in  general,  but  that  they  are  also  varied  to  correspond 
to  the  peculiar  wants  of  animals  in  different  climates. 

First,  we  would  notice  the  herbs  which  cover  the  surface  of 
the  earth ;  had  their  stems  been  hard  and  woody,  the  greater 
part  of  the  earth  would  have  been  inaccessible  to  the  foot  of 
man,  until  the  vegetation  was  first  destroyed  by  fire,  or  by  some 
other  means.  Shall  we  suppose  that  the  grass  and  herbs  which 
now  afford  a  soft  carpet  for  our  feet,  came  by  chance  to  grow 
thus,  rather  than  hard  and  woody  like  the  trees  ?  Shall  we  sup- 
pose,  too,  that  by  chance,  the  prevailing  colour  of  vegetation  is 
green,  that  colour  upon  which,  above  all,  the  eye  rests  with  the 
most  agreeable  sensations  ?  Suppose  the  grass  and  herbs  to 
have  been  red  or  yellow,  and  with  our  present  organs  of  sight, 
how  painful  would  be  the  sensations  excited  by  these  bright 
colours  !  Instead  of  beholding  nature  with  delight,  we  should 
turn  from  it,  and  vainly  seek  some  object  on  which  the  eye 
might  repose. 

Woody  shrubs  occasionally  alternate  with  herbs,  but  they  are 
so  placed  as  not  to  offer  obstructions  to  the  foot  of  man  ;  they 
often  grow  out  of  the  clefts  of  rocks,  affording  a  means  of 
climbing  almost  perpendicular  precipices.  Large  trees  are  not 
usually  placed  so  near  together  as  to  prevent  a  passage  be- 
tween  them ;  their  lowest  branches  are  mostly  at  a  height  suf- 
ficient to  admit  men  and  beasts  under  them,  and  thus,  few  fo- 
rests are  impenetrable. 

In  cold  countries,  whether  occasioned  by  distance  from  the 
equator,  or  elevation  by  means  of  mountains  and  table  lands, 
we  find  the  pine,  fir,  and  cedar,  and  other  resinous  plants,  which 
furnish  man,  during  the  dreary  season  of  winter,  with  light  and 
fuel.  The  leaves  of  these  trees  are  mostly  filiform,  or  long 
and  narrow,  thus  fitted  for  reverberating  the  heat,  like  the  hair 
of  animals,  and  for  resisting  the  impetuosity  of  winds,  which 
often  prevail  in  those  regions. 

In  warm  countries,  trees  present  in  their  foliage  a  resource 

Habitations  of  Plants — Herbs— Woody  shrubs — Trees— Trees  of   cold 
countries — Of  warm  countries. 


HABITATIONS  OF  PLANTS.  293 

from  the  scorching  rays  of  the  sun ;  their  leaves  serving  as  fans 
and  umbrellas.  The  leaf  of  the  banana  is  broad  and  long,  like 
an  apron ;  it  has  acquired  the  name  of  Adam's  fig  leaf.  The 
leaves  of  the  cocoa  tree  are  said  to  be  from  twelve  to  fifteen 
feet  long,  and  from  seven  to  eight  broad.  Those  of  the  talipot 
tree  are  equal  in  size.  A  traveller  remarks  respecting  the 
leaves  of  the  talipot  tree,  that  one  is  capable  of  covering  from 
fifteen  to  twenty  persons.  The  soldiers,  he  says,  use  it  for  a 
covering  to  their  tents.  He  remarks,  that  it  seems  an  inesti- 
mable blessing  of  Providence  in  a  country  burnt  up  by  the  sun, 
and  inundated  by  rains  for  six  months  of  the  year.  In  our 
climate*  during  the  warm  season,  Providence  bestows  upon  us 
a  rariety  of  juicy  and  acid  fruits,  cherries,  peaches,  plums,  me- 
lons and  berries  ;  nuts  and  many  fruits  are  fitted  for  preserva- 
tion during  the  winter,  so  that  we  are  never  destitute  of  these 
bounties. 

A  remarkable  instance  of  the  care  of  Providence  in  provi- 
ding  for  the  wants  of  man,  appears  in  what  is  related  of  a  plant 
found  amidst  the  burning  deserts  of  Africa  ;  the  leaf  of  which 
is  said  to  be  in  the  form  of  a  pitcher,  and  to  possess  the  property 
of  secreting  moisture  to  such  a  degree  as  to  form  a  quantity  of 
water  sufficient  for  a  draught  to  a  thirsty  person  ;*  the  end  of 
the  leaf  is  folded  over  the  throat,  as  if  to  prevent  the  evapora- 
tion of  the  fluid. f  Various  plants  and  trees,  in  hot  regions, 
furnish  refreshing  draughts  to  the  thirsty  traveller. 

These  remarks  might  be  pursued  to  an  extent  as  great  as  the 
vastness  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  and  wants  of  man  ;  we  have 
merely  glanced  at  the  subject  of  the  adaptation  of  plants  to  the 
wants  of  animal  life,  hoping  that  these  few  suggestions  may  lead 
you  to  trace,  from  your  own  observation  of  the  works  of  na- 
ture, the  great  designing  mind,  which  rules  and  governs  all 
with  infinite  wisdom  and  benevolence. 

The  earth,  then,  we  .find  to  be  covered  with  a  multitude  of 
species  of  plants,  differing  not  more  by  their  externa-1  forms, 
than  by  their  internal  structure,  each  endowed  with  peculiar 
habits  and  instincts. 

Some  species  seem  adapted  to  the  mountains,  some  to  the 
valleys,  and  others  to  the  plains  ;  some  require  an  argillaceous 
or  clayey  soil,  others  a  calcareous  soil,  or  one  impregnated  with 
lime ;  others  a  quartzose  or  sandy  soil,  and  some  will  only 
grow  where  the  earth  contains  soda  or  marine  salts.  Many 

*  This  plant,  from  the  general  description  of  the  leaf,  would  seem  to  be  the 
Sarracenia ;  this,  however,  only  grows  in  marshes, 
t  See  Part  I. 

A  plant  found  in  the  deserts  of  Africa— Reflection — Plants  adapted  to  vari- 
ous soils,  &c. 

25* 


294  GEOGRAPHICAL  SITUATION. 

plants  will  grow  only  in  water  ;  we  find  here  such  as  are  pe- 
culiar to  the  marsh,  the  lake,  the  river,  and  the  sea.  Many 
plants  require  a  very  elevated  temperature,  some  will  grow 
only  in  mild  and  temperate  climates,  and  others  only  in  the 
midst  of  frosts  and  snows. 

Thus  every  country  where  man  is  to  be  found  has  its  vege- 
tation. Some  species,  of  plants,  with  respect  to  localities,  are 
confined  to  narrow  limits. 

A  species  of  ORIGANUM  (the  tournefortii)j  was  discovered  by 
Tburnefort,  in  1700,  upon  one  single  rock  in  the  little  island  of 
Amorgos,  in  the  Greek  Archipelago  ;  eighty  years  afterwards 
the  plant  was  found  in  the  same  island,  and  upon  the  same  rock, 
and  has  never  been  discovered  in  any  other  situation.  Some 
plants  confine  themselves  within  certain  longitudes,  scarcely 
varying  from  the  right  to  the  left.  The  MENZIESIA  pallifolia, 
a  species  of  heath  confined  between  ten  and  fifteen  degrees  of 
west  longitude,  is  found  in  Portugal,  Spain,  and  Ireland.  Lati- 
tude and  elevation,  by  reason  of  mountains  and  table  lands, 
produce  a  greater  variety  in  the  appearance  of  vegetation  than 
almost  any  other  causes. 

Few  plants  are  found  to  endure  extreme  cold.  Botanists 
have  estimated,  that  at  Spitsbergen1,  in  north  latitude  about  80°, 
there  are  but  about  30  species  of  plants  ;  in  Lapland,  in  70°, 
there  are  539  species  ;  at  Madagascar,  at  the,  tropic  of  Capri- 
corn, there  are  5000  ;  and  at  the  equator  a  much  greater  num- 
ber. These  estimates  fall  very  far  short  of  the  number  of 
species  now  known,  but  they  may  give  some  idea  of  the  differ- 
ence in  the  vegetation  of  cold  and  warm  climates. 

Geographical  situation  of  Plants. 

Every  country  exhibits  a  botanical  character  peculiar  to 
itself.  Linnaeus,  in  his  bold  and  graphic  language,  said,*  "  A 
practical  botanist  can  usually  at  the  first  glance,  distinguish 
the  plants  of  Africa,  Asia,  America  and  the  Alps  ;  but  it  is  not 
easy  to  tell  how  he  is  able  to  do  this.  There  is  a  certain  cha- 
racter of  sullenness,  gloom  and  obscurity,  in  the  plants  of  Af- 
rica ;  something  proud  and  elevated  in  those  of  Asia  ;  joyful 
arid  smiling  in  those  of  America  ;  while  those  of  the  Alps  seem 
hardened  and  ungrateful  !" 

In  investigating  the  geographical  situation  of  the  vegetable 

*  Primo  intuitu  distinguit  saepius  exercitatus  botanicus  plantas  Africa?,  Asiee, 
Americas,  Alpiumque,  sed  non  facile  dicerit  ipse  ex  qua  nota.  Nescis  quse 
facies  torva,  sicca,  obscuris  Afris  ;  qua?  superba,  exaltata  Asiaticus  ;  qua?  laota, 
glabra  Americanus  ;  qua?  coarctata,  indurata  Alpiuis  ! 


Some  have  a  confined  locality  —  Few  endure  extreme  cW—  Every  couatr  y 
haw  its  own  botanical  character. 


GEOGRAPHICAL  SITUATION.  295 

kingdom,  we  see  the  powerful  effects  of  light  and  heat.  Feeble 
in  the  polar  regions,  vegetation  acquires  strength  as  we  approach 
towards  the  equator,  where  the  light  of  the  sun  is  vivid,  and  its 
heat,  permanent  and  intense. 

The  centre  of  the  frigid  zone  is  entirely  destitute  of  vegeta- 
tion. After  passing  the  arctic  circle,  we  find  on  the  borders 
of  the  temperate  zone,  a  few  species  of  plants,  chiefly  lichens, 
mosses,  and  ferns,  also  a'^ew  shrubs  and  berries.  In  the  heat 
of  a  polar  summer,  the  growth  of  plants  is  rapid  ;  Lapland  is 
the  only  country  within  this  zone  where  any  kind  of  grain  can 
be  raised. 

The  productions  of  the  temperate  zone  gradually  alter  in 
character  as  we  approach  the  tropics.  Humboldt  has  divided 
the  temperate  zone,  with  respect  to  productions,  into  three 
regions  ;  the  cold,  the  temperate,  and  warm  regions.  In  the 
cold  region,  grain  may  be  raised  to  advantage,  and  berries 
grow  in  abundance.  In  the  temperate  region,  the  wine  grape  , 
grainf  and  fruits  of  many  kinds,  are  cultivated  in  their  greatest 
perfection.  The  warm  region  produces  olives,  jigs  oranges 
and  lemons. 

The  variety  of  plants  in  the  torrid  zone  is  very  great.  Trees 
are  more  numerous  in  proportion  to  other  plants,  than  in  the 
temperate  zones  ;  the  same  tribes  which  are  there  slender  and 
humble  plants,  here  spread  into  lofty  trees,  many  of  which  are 
adorned  by  large  and  beautiful  flowers.  The  richest  fruits  and 
spices,  and  the  most  valuable  medicinal  plants  are  found  here. 
In  ascending  the  mountains  of  the  torrid  zone,  as  the  tempera- 
ture varies,  each  section  has  its  own  distinct  plants,  and  we  find 
in  succession,  the  production  of  every  region  from  the  equator 
to  the  poles.* 

As  the  mountains  of  the  torrid  zone  afford  every  ^variety  of 
climate  between  their  base  and  their  summit,  so  they  are  capa- 
ble of  producing  all  the  vegetables  of  every  climate  ;  but  as 
the  temperature  diminishes,  as  the  latitude  increases,  so,  gene- 
rally speaking,  the  productions,  as  we  proceed  from  the  tropic 
northward  or  southward,  correspond  with  the  elevation  at 
which  the  same  plants  will  grow  upon  a  mountain  within  the 
tropics.  Every  plant  requires  other  circumstances  alike  ;  the 
same  mean  annual  temperature,f  for  example.  The  magnifi- 
cent plantain  tree  and  valuable  sugar  cane  require  a  mean 
animal  heat  of  from  82  to  73  degrees  ;  but  73  degrees  of  mean 


t  JH?  explanation  of  mean  annual  temperature,  see  note  under  vines,  Lec- 

ture 22. 

Plants  of  the  frigid  zone—  Temperate  rone—  Torrid  zone—  Production  of 
every  region  found  in  ascending  mountains  of  the  torrid  zone. 


296  ,  CULTIVATION  OF  PLANTS. 

annual  heat  is  not  found  beyond  the  27th  degree  of  latitude ; 
consequently  the  plantain  and  sugar  cane  will  not  ripen  in  the 
open  air  in  a  higher  latitude ;  and  this  Baron  Humboldt  has 
found  to  correspond  with  the  height  of  3000  feet  under  the 
equator.  The  cotton  plant  will  not  flourish  without  68  degrees 
of  heat,  which  is  not  found  beyond  34  degrees  of  latitude, 
which  corresponds  with  about  3600  feet  of  elevation  at  the 
equator.  The  same  reasoning  applies  to  all  other  plants,  with 
the  exceptions  arising  from  warm  v allies,  moisture  of  air,  and 
richness  of  soil. 

See  Plate  L 

Feet. 

The  highest  spot  on  which  man  ever  trod,           •  ID, 400 

The  highest  limit  of  the  lichen  plant,  -      18,225 

The  lowest  limit  of  perpetual  snow  under  the  equator,  -        -  15,730 

The  highest  limit  of  pines  under  the  equator,  -      12,801 

The  highest  limit  of  trees  under  the  equator,        -  1 1, 125 

The  highest  limit  of  oaks  under  the  equator,            •  •      10,500 

The  highest  limit  of  the  Peruvian  bark  tree,       -  '.', .">(><) 

The  lowest  limit  of  pines  under  the  equator,  •        5,685 

The  highest  limit  of  palms  and  bananas,  3,280 


LECTURE   XLII. 

Plants  as  affected  by  cultivation,  tyc. 

You  may  recollect  that  we  have  before  remarked  upon  the 
permanence  of  species,  and  have  observed  that  although  they 
may  in  some  respects  be  varied  by  cultivation,  yet  their  dis- 
tinctive  characters  will  not  be  wholly  lost.  The  differences 
which  exist  in  species  are  expressed  by  the  terms  races,  vari- 
eties, and  variations. 

Races  are  those  differences  in  a  species  which  are  of  a  striking 
kind,  and  continued  from  the  parent  plant  to  its  offspring,  by 
being  propagated  by  the  seed.  They  are  produced  by  strewing 
pollen  of  one  species  upon  the  pistils  of  another ;  the  seed  thus 
formed  will  produce  a  plant  resembling  both. 

Varieties  are  a  less  important  distinction  than  races ;  they 
are  not  continued  by  means  of  the  seed,  but  produced  by  graft- 
ing  or  continuation  of  the  plant  under  some  new  circumstances. 

Variations  denote  the  slightest  kinds  of  difference  ;  they 
are  occasioned  by  peculiarities  of  climate,  soil,  moisture,  dry- 

Elevation  produces  similar  effects  on  vegetation,  as  distance  from  the  equa- 
tor— Permanence  of  species — Races — Varieties — Variations. 


DEGENERATION  OF  ORGANS.  297 

ness  &c.     All  these  terms,  races,  varieties  and  variations,  are 
often  used  indiscriminately  for  each  other. 

Degeneration  or  change  of  the  organs  of  plants. 

The  organs  of  plants,  owing  to  peculiar  causes,  often  experi- 
ence a  metamorphosis,  and  instead  of  their  usual  appearance 
exhibit  anomalies  of  vegetable  deformities. 

We  use  here  the  term  deformity,  as  signifying  any  variation 
from  the  ordinary  course  of  nature.  The  causes  which  pro- 
duce these  changes  are, 

1st.  The  adhesion  of  parts  usually  separate ;  thus  we  often 
see  flowers,  leaves  and  fruits  united,  and  appearing  double. 

Some  writers,  among  whom  is  the  celebrated  French  bota- 
nist, De  Candolle,  assert  that  the  single  petal  which  forms  the 
corolla  of  many  flowers,  as  the  stramonium  or  the  blue  bell,  is 
in  reality  composed  of  several  petals  which  become  soldered, 
or  cohere  together  before  the  flower  expands.  The  same 
writers  consider  a  monophyllous  calyx,  to  be  composed  of  sev- 
eral little  leaves  thus  united  before  their  developement. 

2d.  Changes  are  occasioned  by  a  want  of  vigour  in  the 
plant  to  bring  all  the  parts  to  maturity.  Some  of  the  seeds 
thus  often  fail  for  want  of  nourishment ;  many  plants  which  in 
one  flower  produce  several  seeds,  often  ripen  no  more  than 
one.  The  horse-chesnut  has  six  seeds,  but  seldom  matures 
more  than  two  ;  in  the  blossom  of  the  oak  where  six  seeds  are 
produced,  but  one  acorn  is  perfected. 

3d.  In  some  cases  organs  appear  from  certain  changes  to  be 
incapable  of  performing  their  original  offices,  and  thus  exhibit 
deformities ;  as  where  a  bud  is  formed,  which  for  want  of  suffi- 
cient nourishment,  or  some  other  cause,  does  not  develppe  itself 
into  a  leaf,  but  forms  a  permanent  protuberance  or  swelling 
upon  the  stem.  The  prickly  pear  exhibits  a  thick  and  ex- 
panded stem,  which  is  formed  of  leaves  imperfectly  developed. 
4th.  The  stamens  and  pistils  through  excess  of  nourishment, 
swell  out,  and  become  petals  ;  all  double  flowers  are  formed 
in  this  manner.  The  poppy  in  its  natural  state  has  many 
stamens,  and  but  fotir  petals ;  but  you  often  see  double  poppies, 
with  scarcely  the  vestige  of  a  stamen  left ;  the  same  change 
may  be  observed  in  the  rose,  which  naturally  has  but  five 
petals  and  many  stamens  and  pistils,  but  in  a  very  full,  double 
rose,  scarcely  any  appearance  of  either  stamen  or  pistil  is  to 
be  seen.  The  stamens  more  frequently  than  the  pistils  meet 

Changes  of  the  organs  of  plants— Deformities— 1st  cause  for  the  changes  of 
plants— 2d  cause  of  change— 3d  case  in  which  changes  appear— 4th.  Double 
flowers,  how  caused. 


298  DISEASES  OF  PLANTS. 

with  this  metamorphosis  ;  as  they  appear  to  be  more  intimate- 
ly connected  with  the  petals  than  the  pistils. 

5th.  The  petioles  or  foot  stalks  often  change  to  leaves. 
This  may  be  seen  in  an  Arabian  plant  ACACIA  zilotica,  which 
furnishes  the  gum  arabic.  This  tree  at  first  exhibits  upon  one 
petiole  six  or  eight  pair  of  leaves ;  this  number  every  year 
becomes  less,  until  all  the  leaves  disappear  ;  the  petiole  then 
retaining  all  the  nourishment  which  before  was  distributed  to 
the  leaves,  flattens  and  expands,  and  appears  in  the  form  of  a 
thick  leaf.  The  trees  which  we  call  Acacia  are  not  of  this 
genus,  but  of  the  genus  Robinia. 

6th.  The  peduncles  and  petioles,  sometimes  change  into 
tendrils,  as  in  the  vine  ;  this  plant  at  first  throws  out  many 
large  leaves  and  clusters  of  flowers ;  but  the  food  not  being 
sufficient  to  support  such  a  profuse  vegetation,  the  new  leaves 
and  clusters  of  flowers  appear  smaller ;  the  nourishment  be- 
coming  still  more  scanty,  at  length  neither  flower  or  leaf  is 
developed,  and  the  peduncle  and  petiole  become  tendrils,  which 
by  attaching  themselves  to  some  firm  bodies,  serve  to  sustain 
the  rich  fruit  which  is  perfected  on  the  flower  parts  of  the 
branch, 

7th.  The  last  change  we  shall  notice  is  the  transformation 
of  buds  into  thorns.  When  a  plant  forms  more  buds  than  it 
can  nourish,  some  of  them  do  not  develope  branches  and  leaves, 
but  becoming  hardened  by  the  accumulation  of  sap,  which  is 
insufficient  for  their  full  perfection,  they  exhibit  the  short 
indurated  process  called  a  thorn.  It  is  said  that  wild  plants  by 
rich  cultivation,  do  in  time  become  divested  of  their  thorns, 
which  change  into  what  they  seemed  originally  destined  for, 
viz.  leaves  and  branches. 

Prickles,  such  as  may  be  seen  upon  the  rose,  gooseberry 
and  other  plants,  do  not  change  by  cultivation,  for  these  are  a 
natural  appendage,  originating  from  the  bark  ;  while  the  thorn 
may  be  found  connected  with  the  wood,  of  which  it  seems  to 
make  a  part. 

Diseases  of  Plants.* 

The  diseases  of  plants,  for  these  organized  beings  are,  like 
animals,  subject  to  disease  and  death,  may  in  many  cases  arise 
from  causes  within  the  knowledge  of  the  attentive  naturalist. 

1st.  We  notice  constitutional  diseases.     Of  this  class  are 

*  This  constitutes  a  department  of  Botany  called  pathology ;  a  term  derived 
from  two  Greek  words,  pathos,  disease,  and  logos,  account. 

5th.  Changes  in  petioles — 6th.  Peduncles  and  petioles  become  vines — 7th. 
Buds,  how  transformed— Prickles— Diseases  of  plants— 1st.  Constitutional. 


DISEASES  OF  PLANTS.  299 

the  varied  colours  of  some  leaves,  such  as  the  box  and  holly ; 
this  is  supposed  to  be  owing  to  certain  juices  which  by  changing 
their  elements,  vary  the  colour  of  the  leaf. 

2d.  Plants  seem  diseased  by  being  subjected  to  too  great  or 
too  scanty  a  supply  of  food,  as  light,  heat,  water,  air  and  soil. 
Excess  of  light  causes  an  escape  of  oxygen,  and  a  too  rapid 
deposit  of  carbon ;  the  sap,  incapable  of  sustaining  so  great  a 
degree  of  action,  becomes  exhausted,  the  plant  withers,  and 
the  leaves  fall  off.  In  this  situation  the  food  should  be  either 
increased  by  watering  or  the  vegetation  retarded  by  diminish, 
ing  the  light.  Excess  of  heat  absorbs  the  juices  of  the  plant ; 
deficiency  of  heat  produces  dropsy  and  the  plant  losing  its 
leaves  ultimately  decomposes.  More  water  is  evaporated  by  a 
plant  than  is  retained  for  its  nourishment ;  therefore  the  more 
that  is  absorbed  by  the  roots,  the  more  should  be  evaporated 
by  the  leaves. 

3d.  External  injuries  often  affect  the  health  of  plants. 
Rains  injure  the  wood  by  penetrating  through  apertures  in  the 
bark.  The  bark  seems  from  its  nature  better  fitted  to  bear 
the  action  of  the  weather.  Winds  when  violent  are  mechan- 
ically destructive  to  vegetables  ;  when  moderate,  the  agitation 
which  they  produce  is  thought  to  be  advantageous,  by  favouring 
the  descent  of  the  cambium,  and  promoting  a  more  free  circu- 
lation of  the  other  juices. 

Smoke  is  injurious  to  plants,  it  being  composed  of  particles, 
which  although  invisible  to  our  sight,  are  yet  too  gross  to  be 
absorbed  by  the  minute  pores  of  the  leaves ;  it  serves  there- 
fore, to  obstruct  the  pores,  and  prevent  their  exhaling  the 
oxygen  gas  which  is  necessary  for  the  decomposition  of  the 
carbonic  acid  and  the  consequent  deposition  of  carbon. 

4th.  Plants  sustain  injuries  from  animals  which  produce 
diseases.  Insects  in  particular  make  their  way  into  the  bark 
and  external  coats  of  the  plant  and  deposit  their  eggs  ;  these 
eggs  when  hatched  produce  larva?,  which  often,  by  their  pecu- 
liar juices,  rot  the  wood.  These  insects  are  called  cynips. 
One  kind  produces  the  hard  protuberances  on  trees  of  different 
kinds,  which  are  called  gall-nuts,  or  nut-galls ;  others  which 
are  softer  and  more  spongy  are  called  apple-galls  or  berry, 
galls.  Another  kind  of  insect,  called  cochineal,  attaches  itself 
to  the  bark  of  trees,  and  preys  upon  the  juices.  One  species 
of  the  cochineal  is  of  a  brilliant  scarlet  colour  and  much  valued 
for  its  use  in  dyeing  ;  this  species  feeds  on  the  Cactus  opuntia, 
a  Mexican  plant. 

5th.  Diseases  are  produced  by  plants  preying  upon  each 


2d.  Light  and  heat — 3d.  External  injuries — Rains — Winds — Smoke— 4th. 
Animals. 


300  LONGEVITY  OF  PLANTS. 

other,  either  by  fastening,  themselves  upon  their  surfaces,  or 
by  so  near  a  location  as  to  deprive  others  of  their  necessary 
food.  Parasites  fasten  themselves  upon  the  surfaces  of  other 
plants ;  they  are  distinguished  into  two  kinds,  the  false  and 
true  parasites ;  the  former  adheres  to  the  plant  without  feeding 
on  its  juices,  as  mosses  and  lichens.  These  derive  their  nour- 
ishment from  the  atmosphere,  but  they  injure  the  tree  by  har- 
boring insects,  and  attracting  moisture,  which  often  rots  the 
part  of  the  stem  on  which  they  grow.  The  misletoe  is  a  true 
parasite  whose  root,  piercing  the  bark  of  trees,  plants  itself  in 
the  alburnum,  and  absorbs  food  from  it,  in  the  same  manner  as 
if  it  were  fixed  in  the  soil.  The  Pterospora  is  a  very  curious 
parasite  which  is  sometimes  found  upon  the  leaves  of  shrubs,* 
but  more  frequently  upon  the  branches  and  leaves  of  trees. 
Mushrooms  are  of  the  class  of  false  parasites.  Smut  is  a  black 
fungus,  which  fastens  itself  upon  the  ears  of  oats  and  other  grain. 
The  rot  is  a  fungus  excrescence  which  preys  upon  the  seed  ;  if 
seeds  which  have  this  disease  fastened  upon  them  are  sown,  the 
rot  will  be  propagated  also.  Ergot  is  a  disease  mostly  confined 
to  rye.  Rust  is  chiefly  confined  to  the  grasses  ;  both  are  of  the 
fungi  family. 

6th.  Diseases  resulting  from  age.  Plants  differ  from  animals 
in  one  important  circumstance  ;  the  latter  develope  their  organs 
at  once,  these  organs  in  progress  of  time  become  indurated 
and  obstructed,  until  they  at  length  decay  from  old  age.  Plants, 
on  the  contrary,  renew  themselves  every  year  ;  that  is,  they 
form  new  vessels  to  convey  the  juices,  new  leaves  to  elaborate 
them  and  new  buds  to  produce  flowers  and  fruits.  Plants  do 
not,  then,  like  animals,  seem  destined  to  die  with  old  age;  or 
there  does  not  seem  to  be  in  perennial  plants  any  prescribed 
term  of  existence.  The  producing  of  fruit  appears  to  exhaust 
the  vital  energy  of  the  plant,  in  annuals  in  one  year,  in  bien- 
nials in  two,  in  perennials,  in  a  longer  or  shorter  period  ac- 
cording to  their  natural  constitution,  and  the  quantity  of  fruit 
which  they  produce.  Apple  trees  which  bear  heavy  loads  of 
fruit,  are  very  short  lived  in  comparison  with  the  oak,  which 
perfects  from  each  flower,  but  one  of  six  seeds,  and  this  fruit  is 
but  a  small  acorn. 

There  are  some  trees  now  known  to  exist,  which  are  supposed 
to  be  of  great  age  ;  in  the  Island  of  Teneriffe  is  the  DRACAENA 
draco,  which  according  to  many  circumstances  may  seem  to 

*  A  species  of  this  genus  was  found  in  the  woods  east  of  Troy,  upon  the  leaf 
of  the  Vaccinium.  The  colour  of  the  whole  plant,  consisting  of  two  flowera, 
and  a  kind  of  leaf,  was  that  of  a  red  rose. 

5th.  Parasites — 6th.  Diseases  resulting  from  old  age— Aged  tree*. 


PARTICULAR  USES  OF  PLANTS.  301 

have  some  thousand  years  of  age.  In  England,  at  Blenheim 
Park,  it  is  said,  may  be  seen  trunks  of  trees  which  shaded  the 
bower  of  fair  Rosamond,  and  which  it  is  supposed  are  not  less 
than  a  thousand  years  old. 

At  Hartford,  in  Connecticut,  is  the  Charter-oak,  which  was  a 
hollow-tree  in  the  days  of  James  II.  143  years  ago.  In  the 
hollow  of  this  tree  was  concealed  the  charter  of  the  state  when 
the  King  of  England,  through  his  agents  attempted  to  deprive 
the  colonists  of  that  guarantee  of  their  civil  rights.  This  oak 
must,  at  that  period,  have  been  an  aged  tree. 

Useful  Plants. 

We  perceive  among  the  various  species  of  vegetable  beings, 
some  which  seem  destined  only  to  beautify  and  enliven  the  earth  ; 
others,  with  little  or  no  beauty,  are  valuable  only  for  their 
utility ;  and  in  some  instances  we  find  utility  and  beauty  united ; 
roses,  lilies,  tulips,  carnations,  and  most  of  the  green-house  and- 
garden  plants  belong  to  the  first  mentioned  class.  Trees  are 
not  only  beautiful,  but  many  of  them  are  highly  useful ;  aiford- 
ing  fuel,  shelter  and  shade,  nuts,  berries  and  other  fruits  ;  their 
bark  is  used  for  tanning,  for  medicine  and  spices ;  and  their 
sap  and  secretions  furnish  sugar  and  various  medicinal  extracts. 

Trees  with  respect  to  their  wood,  may  naturally  be  divided, 
1st,  into  such  as  have  hard  wood,  as  the  oak,  elm,  apple,  &c. 
2d,  such  as  have  soft  wood,  as  the  poplar  and  willow.  3d, 
such  as  have  resinous  wood,  as  the  pine  and  fir.  4th,  such  as 
are  evergreens  but  not  resinous,  as  the  evergreen  oak  of  the 
south  of  Europe. 

Hard  wood  is  considered  best  for  fuel ;  as  it  contains  the 
greatest  quantity  of  carbon  it  causes  a  more  intense  and  perma- 
nen,t  heat ;  resinous  wood,  containing  more  hydrogen,  burns 
with  a  more  brilliant  flame. 

The  fermented  juice  of  the  grape  produces  wine.  Grain  of 
different  kinds  produces  gin,  whiskey,  &c.  Apples  by  their 
fermentation  produce  cider ;  this  liquor,  concentrated  by  dis- 
tillation, produces  brandy  and  alcohol.  The  vineyards  of 
Italy  and  France,  and  of  some  of  the  Atlantic  islands  are  the 
most  celebrated  for  their  wine.  In  America,  the  vine  does  not 
flourish  in  the  same  luxuriance  as  upon  the  eastern  continent. 

Grasses  are  the  palms  of  cold  climates  ;  they  are  of  the  class 
of  monocotyledons,  and  have  endogenous  stems.  .  Some  are 
perennial,  some  annual ;  the  meadow  grasses  are  of  the  former 
kind.  The  grains,  Indian  corn  and  rice  are  annual.  There 

i ______ . 

Charter-oak — Plants  which  are  chiefly  valuable  for  beauty — For  utility — 
''  Division  of  trees  with  respect  to  wood — Liquors  produced  from  plants — Grasses. 

26 


302  HISTORY  OF  BOTANY. 

are  certain  grasses  which  are  called  artificial,  because  they  do 
not  spring  up  without  cultivation ;  of  this  kind  is  clover,  a 
leguminous  plant,  of  the  artificial  class  diadelphia ;  Saintfoin 
and  Lucerne  are  of  the  same  natural  and  artificial  class. 
Gramineous  plants,  although  very  important  as  furnishing 
from  their  leaves  food  for  cattle,  are  yet  more  especially  use- 
ful for  their  seeds  which  furnish  food  for  man. 

Some  plants  furnish  oils,  which  are  of  important  uses  in 
various  wavs.  Of  the  fixed  and  volatile  oils  we  have  already 
spoken.  The  fixed  oils  are  extracted  from  plants  called 
oleaginous ;  they  may  be  considered  under  three  heads,  1st, 
olive  oil  produced  from  the  olive  in  warm  countries  ;  2d,  nut 
oil  of  temperate  climates,  as  obtained  from  walnuts,  &c.  ;  3d, 
oil  obtained  from  the  seed  of  oleaginous  or  oily  plants,  as  the 
flax. 

Tuberous  roots  afford  the  turnip,  potatoe,  carrot,  beet,  pars- 
nip, &c.  which  are  all  important  articles  of  food. 

Asparagus  when  young  is  esteemed  a  luxury  ;  the  rhubarb 
plant  is  used  in  making  pies  ;  celery,  onions,  and  even  garlic, 
are  esteemed  valuable  for  food  and  seasoning.  Many  of  the 
labiate  plants,  as  thyme,  sage,  &c.  are  used  in  cookery.  The 
Cruciform  family  presents  us  with  the  cabbage,  cauliflower, 
turnips,  &c.  The  Leguminous  family  affords  beans,  peas,  &c. 

The  Cucurbitacece  furnishes  us  with  melons,  squashes  and 
cucumbers.  Umbelliferous  plants  present  us  with  the  aroma- 
tics,  caraway,  coriander,  &c.  which  are  useful  in  medicine 
and  confectionary. 


LECTURE    XLIII. 

History  of  Botany  from  the  Creation  of  the  World>  to  the  Revival 
of  Letters  in  the  reign  of  Charlemagne,  A.  D.  770. 

WE  propose  to  give  an  account  of  the  progress  of  botanical 
knowledge  ;  and  this  being  closely  connected  with  other  scien- 
ces, you  may  consider  it  as  a  general  view  of  the  progress  of 
natural  science. 

After  becoming  familiar  with  a  science,  the  mind  very  natu- 
rally seeks  for  information  respecting  its  origin,  and  the  pro- 
gress by  which  it  advanced  from  the  first  rude  conceptions 
which  might  have  been  formed,  to  its  gradual  developement 
and  comparative  perfection. 

Oleaginous  plants — Tuberous  roots — Asparagus,  &c. — Cruciform,  &c. — 
Melons — Umbelliferous  plants — History  of  botanical  science — After  becoming 
familiar  \vith  a  science  we  wish  to  know  its  history. 


HISTORY  OF  BOTANY.  303 

The  history  of  the  progress  of  a  science  makes  a  part  of 
the  science  itself;  we  are  interested  in  the  various  efforts  of 
philosophers,  their  experience  and  observations,  and  the  trains 
of  reasoning  by  which  they  have  arrived  at  those  conclusions 
which  are  the  basis  of  science. 

In  botany  as  in  the  other  sciences,  physical  wants  were  the 
first  guides  ;  man  at  first  sought  to  find  in  vegetables,  food, 
then  remedies  for  diseases,  and  lastly  amusement  and  instruc- 
tion. x 

The  first  account  of  plants  may  be  traced  to  the  history  of 
the  creation,  by  Moses.  It  was  on  the  third  day  of  this  great 
work  that  God  said,  « Let  the  earth  bring  forth  grass,  the 
herb  yielding  seed,  and  the  fruit  tree  yielding  fruit  after  his 
kind,  whose  seed  is  in  itself,  upon  the  earth :  and  it  was  so  ;  and 
the  earth  brought  forth  grass,  and  the  herb  yielding  seed  after 
his  kind,  and  the  tree  yielding  fruit,  whose  seed  was  in  itself 
after  his  kind  ;  and  God  saw  that  it  was  good."  After  this,  it 
is  recorded  that  God  gave  to  Adam  every  herb  and  every  tree 
bearing  fruit ;  the  latter  was  for  him  exclusively,  but  to  the 
beasts  of  the  earth,  and  the  fowls  of  the  air,  and  to  every 
thing  wherein  there  is  life,  he  also  gave  the  green  herb  for 
meat. 

It  is  recorded  that  Adam  gave  names  to  all  the  beasts  of  the 
field  and  the  fowls  of  the  air ;  and  Milton  imagines  that  to 
Eve  was  assigned  the  pleasant  task  of  giving  names  to  flowers, 
and  numbering  the  tribes  of  plants.  When  our  first  parents, 
after*  their  wicked  disobedience  of  the  Divine  command,  are 
about  to  leave  their"  delightful  Eden,  Eve,  in  the  language  of 
the  Poet,  with  bitter  regret  exclaims  : 

"  Must  I  thus  leave  th.ee,  Paradise  ?  thus  leave 

Thee,  native  soil,  these  happy  walks  and  shades, 

Fit  haunt  of  Gods,  where  I  had  hope  to  spend, 

Quiet,  though  sad,  the  respite  of  that  day, 

That  must  be  mortal  to  us  both  ?     Oh  flowers 

That  never  will  in  other  climate  grow, 

My  early  visitation,  and  my  last 

At  even ;  which  I  bred  up  with  tender  hand, 

From  the  first  opening  bud,  and  gave  ye  names  ; 

Who  now  shall  rear  ye  to  the  sun,  or  rank 

Your  tribes,  and  water  from  the  ambrosial  fount  ?" 

The  Bible,  and  the  poems  of  Homer,  afford  us  the  only 
vestiges  of  the  botanical  knowledge  of  the  earliest  ages  of  the 
world. 

Great  advantages  were  afforded  to  the  Jews  for  obtaining  a 
knowledge  of  plants,  in  their  long  wanderings  over  the  face 

First  account  of  plants  traced  to  the  history  of  the  creation — Milton  ima- 
gines that  Eve  gave  names  to  the  plants  and  numbered  their  tribes — The 
Bible  and  the  poems  of  Homer  afford  the  only  botanical  facts  known  in  the 
earliest  ages  of  the  world. 


304  HISTORY  OF  BOTANY. 

of  the  earth,  before  they  settled  in  Judea.  When  in  possession 
of  this  fertile  country,  they  extended  their  intercourse  with 
foreign  nations  ;  the  vessels  of  Solomon  frequented  the  shores 
of  the  Red  Sea,  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  the  East  Indian  Islands. 
In  the  Book  of  Kings  it  is  said,  "  God  gave  Solomon  wisdom 
and  understanding  above  all  the  children  of  the  East  country, 
and  all  the  wisdom  of  Egypt,  for  he  was  wiser  than  all  men. 
He  spake  proverbs  and  songs;  he  also  spake  of  trees,  from 
the  cedar  tree  that  is  in-  Lebanon  even  unto  the  hyssop,  that 
springeth  out  of  the  wall ;  and  people  from  all  countries  came 
to  hear  his  wisdom." 

The  Magi,  or  "  wise  men  of  the  east,"  cultivated  the  scien- 
ces to  a  great  extent ;  but  they  kept  their  discoveries  in  mys- 
terious concealment,  in  order  the  better  to  tyrannize  over  the 
minds  of  the  people.  Their  researches  were  in  a  great  mea- 
sure lost  to  the  world.  Greece,  however,  received  from  Asia 
and  Egypt  the  first  elements  of  knowledge. 

The  philosophers  of  Greece,  too  eager  to  learn  nature  at 
one  glance,  were  not  satisfied  with  the  slow  process  of  observ- 
ation and  experiment,  and  to  ascend  from  particular  facts  to 
general  principles  ;  but  they  believed  themselves  able,  by  the 
force  of  their  own  genius,  to  build  up  systems  that  would  ex- 
plain all  phenomena ;  supposing  that  man  had  in  his  mind,  pre- 
conceived ideas  of  what  nature  ought  to  be.  This  error  in  the 
philosophy  of  the  ancients,  for  a  long  time  obstructed  the  pro- 
gress of  all  science ;  and  it  was  not  until  laying  aside  this  false 
notion,  and  admittirig  that  the  only  sure  method  of  learning 
nature  was  to  study  her  works,  that  the  labours  of  philoso- 
phers began  to  be  followed  by  important  discoveries. 

The  greater  part  of  the  ancient  Greek  philosophers  assert- 
ed, that  plants  were  organized  like  animals,  that  they  possessed 
sensible  and  rational  souls,  capable  of  desires  and  fears,  plea- 
sure and  pain.  Pythagoras  of  Samos,  who  travelled  in  Egypt, 
and  was  there  instructed  by  the  priests  of  the  goddess  Isis,  is 
said  by  Pliny  to  have  been  the  first  of  the  Greek  writers  who 
composed  a  treatise  on  the  properties  of  plants. 

Seven  men  of  the  name  of  Hippocrates,  wrote  upon  the 
medicinal  properties  of  plants ;  but  their  descriptions,  being 
destitute  of  system,  are  vague  and  cannot  be  applied  to  plants 
with  any  degree  of  certainty. 

Aristotle,  perceiving  that  the  course  taken  by  preceding 
philosophers  had  not  conducted  them  to  the  true  knowledge  of 
things,  partially  renounced  their  false  ideas,  and  rested  more 
upon  observation  and  experience.  In  his  researches  he  was 

Solomon  is  said  to  have  spoken  of  trees  and  other  plants—The  Magi — Phi- 
losophers of  Greece— Pythagoras— Hippocrates— Aristotle. 


HISTORY  OF  BOTANY.  305 

favoured  by  Alexander,  of  whom  he  had  been  the  preceptor. 
That  conqueror,  in  the  midst  of  pride  and  the  fury  of  passion, 
still  possessed  the  love  of  true  glory,  and  a  desire  that  his 
conquests  might  serve  to  promote  the  improvement  of  the 
human  mind ;  he  allowed  to  Aristotle,  in  the  prosecution  of 
his  scientific  investigations,  every  facility  that  wealth  and 
power  could  bestow. 

Aristotle  beiieved,  that  in  nature  there  was  a  regular  pro- 
gress, from  inorganized  matter  upwards  to  man,  and  from  man 
upwards  to  the  Deity  ;  that  beings  were  connected  together  by 
certain  affinities,  composing  an  immense  chain,  of  which  the 
links  were  all  connected.  Thompson  seems  to  have  had  this 
idea  in  his  mind  when  he  wrote  thus  : 

"  And  lives  the  man  whose  universal  eye 

Has  swept  at  once  the  unbounded  scheme  of  things  ? 

Has  any  seen 

The  mighty  chain  of  beings,  lessening  down 
From  infinite  perfection  to  the  brink 
Of  dreary  nothing,  desolate  abyss  !" 

This  idea  of  a  regular  chain  of  beings,  presenting  itself 
with  such  grandeur  and  simplicity,  has  had  many  admirers  ; 
but  facts  do  not  always  seem  to  correspond  with  this  theory. 
In  the  vegetable  kingdom  we  should  find  it  impossible  to  trace 
a  regular  gradation  from  the  oak  to  a  moss  (if  we  were  to 
make  these  the  extremes  of  the  chain  of  vegetable  substances), 
and  say  exactly  in  what  part  of  the  scale  each  family  of  plants 
should  be  placed ;  it  would  rather  seem  in  many  cases,  as  if 
the  links  of  the  chain  had  been  broken  or  disunited. 

Aristotle  considered  plants  as  intermediate  between  inor- 
ganized matter  and  animals.  Plants,  he  said,  are  not  distin- 
guished from  animals  in  being  destitute  of  the  seat  of  life,  the 
heart ;  because  of  this,  the  reptiles  and  inferior  order  of  ani- 
mals are  also  destitute.  Plants  have  no  consciousness  of  them- 
selves, or  organs  of  sense  to  know  what  is  out  of  themselves ; 
animals  possess  these  faculties,  therefore  Aristotle  says  they 
are  different.  We  think  it  would  have  been  difficult  for  him 
to  have  discovered  any  evidence  of  consciousness  in  the  sponge, 
or  any  marks  by  which  it  might  appear  that  this  animal  sub- 
stance (for  such  it  is  thought  to  be),  has  any  knowledge  of  any 
thing  external  to  itself.  However  great  may  be  the  venera- 
tion entertained  for  the  opinions  of  Arislotle,  we  believe  his 
distinction  between  plants  and  animals  will  at  this  time  find  no 
supporters.  This  philosopher  published  his  works  on  natural 
history  about  384  years  before  Christ. 
.  Theophrastus,  the  friend  and  pupil  of  Aristotle,  published  a 

Theophrastus. 

26* 


306  HISTORY  OF  BOTANY. 

great  number  of  learned  works ;  among  others  "  A  History  of 
Plants,"  and  "  The  Causes  of  Vegetation."  He  treated  sepa- 
rately of  aquatic  plants,  of  parasites,  of  culinary  herbs,  and  of 
flowering  plants  ;  he  remarked  upon  the  uses  of  each  plant, 
the  place  where  it  grew,  and  whether  it  was  woody  or  herbace- 
ous. He  had  no  idea  of  genera  or  species  ;  his  names  were 
merely  local,  and  his  descriptions  generally  indefinite.  His 
views  upon  the  physiology  of  plants,  were  superior  to  his  de- 
scriptions of  them ;  he  remarked  upon  their  different  external 
organs ;  distinguished  the  seed  lobes  (Cotyledons),  from  the 
leaves  ;  gave  just  ideas  upon  their  functions,  and  upon  the  offi- 
ces of  the  root.  He  explained  their  anatomy,  as  well  as  pos- 
sible, without  the  assistance  of  the  microscope,  which  (as  the 
science  of  optics  was  then  unknown),  had  not  been  invented. 
Theophrastus  seemed  too  much  inclined  to  compare  the  struc- 
ture of  vegetables  to  that  of  animals ;  imagining  that  he  found 
in  plants,  bones,  veins  and  arteries. 

Diosco  rides,  a  physician,  of  Greek  extraction,  about  the  com- 
mencement of  the  Christian  era,  travelled  over  Greece,  Asia 
Minor  and  Italy,  in  order  to  observe  the  plants  of  those  coun- 
tries ;  his  works  were  written  in  Greek  ;  he  divided  plants  into 
four  classes,  viz ;  1st,  aromatic,  2d,  vinous,  3d,  medicinal,  and 
4th,  alimentary  or  nutritious.  The  labours  of  this  botanist 
were  of  little  value,  in  after  times,  on  account  of  want  of  method 
in  his  descriptions.  He  gave  the  nann-s  ami  properties  of  600 
plants,  but  having  no  idea  of  species  or  genera,  his  work  was 
but  a  chaos  of  facts,  which  were  so  imperfectly  expressed  as  to 
render  it  impossible  to  apply  them  to  use. 

The  elder  Pliny,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  Nero,  treated  of 
the  history  of  plants,  but  he  neglected  nature,  and  derived  his 
science  from  the  works  of  his  predecessors.  False  systems  of 
philosophy  seemed  to  fetter  the  noblest  minds,  and  prevent  their 
pursuing  those  methods  of  investigation  which  would  have  led 
to  a  true  knowledge  of  nature.  The  genius  of  Pliny  was  vast 
and  active ;  he  consecrated  to  scientific  researches  and  literary 
works,  the  leisure  which  public  duties  left  him.  His  "  History, 
of  the  World,"  which  was  a  compilation  of  all  the  knowledge 
of  the  ancients,  upon  the  subject  of  natural  history,  the  only 
one  of  his  writings  which  has  escaped  the  ravages  of  time  and 
barbarians,  is  but  a  small  portion  of  his  labours.  He  is  con- 
sidered faulty  in  recording  both  truths  and  errors,  often 
transmitting  them  without  observation  or  criticism,  and  some- 
times favouring  absurd  traditions  ;  but  his  work  is  justly  ad- 
mired for  the  greatness  of  its  plan,  which  embraced  the  whole 
of  nature,  for  the  elegance  of  its  style,  for  the  wonderful  art 

Dioscorides — Pliny. 


HISTORY  OF  BOTANY.  307 

with  which  the  highest  considerations  of  practical  philosophy 
are  associated  with  natural  history. 

In  the  year  79  after  Christ,  Pliny  fell  a  sacrifice  to  his  desire 
of  knowledge  ;  in  an  eruption  of  Mount  Vesuvius,  wishing  to 
contemplate  as  near  as  possible  so  sublime  a  spectacle,  he 
perished,  suffocated  by  the  sulphureous  exhalations. 

Galen,  in  the  2nd  century,  wrote  upon  the  medicinal  quali- 
ties of  plants,  but  gave  no  descriptions.  The  love  of  the  sciences 
seemed,  in  the  prosperous  days  of  Rome,  to  be  extinguished ; 
the  "  Mistress  of  the  world,"  corrupted  by  victories,  and  by 
tyrants,  had  abandoned  herself  to  luxury.  The  false  philoso- 
phy of  the  vanquished  Greeks  reigned  in  the  schools  of  victo- 
rious Rome,  chasing  away  every  trace  of  true  knowledge. 
Religious  fanaticism  had  also  its  influence  ;  Christians  and 
Pagans  destroyed  libraries,  and  the  monuments  of  literature, 
sacred  and  profane. 

At  this  time  the  barbarians  of  the  north  and  west,  precipita- 
ted themselves  upon  a  country  weakened  by  effeminacy.  Italy, 
ravaged  by  the  Huns  and  the  Vandals,  became  successively 
the  prey  of  the  Heruli,  of  the  Goths  and  Vandals.  These 
people,  nursed  in  war,  abhorred  the  sciences  and  arts,  believing 
they  enervated  courage,  and  they  allowed  not  their  children 
to  cultivate  them. 

The  Latin  ceased  to  be  the  common  language,  but  a  corrupt 
mixture  of  barbarous  languages  took  its  place ;  the  population 
was.  greatly  diminished  ;  the  country,  formerly  fertile  and  cul- 
tivated, became  sickly  marshes  and  overgrown  forests,  inhabited 
by  wild  beasts. 

In  this  dark  period  botany  shared  the  fate  of  the  other  scien- 
ces. The  monks,  strangers  to  the  first  elements  of  literature, 
and  yet  passing  for  the  lights  of  their  age,  spoke  in  a  barbarous 
language  of  the  plants  of  Theophrastus  and  Pliny,  commented 
upon  writings  they  were  incapable  of  comprehending,  and 
mingled  with  their  errors  respecting  facts,  the  most  shameful 
superstitions. 


LECTURE   XLIV. 

History  of  Botany,  from  the  eighth  century  to  the  discovery  of 
America. 

THE  state  of  science  was  thus  gloomy  in  the  empire  of  the 
West,  when  Charlemagne,  a  monarch  endowed  with  a  genius 

Galen — The  false  philosophy  of  the  Greeks  received  at  Rome— Barbarians 
ravage  Italy — Language  corrupted — Botany  shared  the  fate  of  other  sciences. 
— Charlemagne. 


308  HISTORY  OF  BOTANY. 

for  learning  and  civilization  in  a  barbarous  age,  vainly  endea- 
voured  to  re-light  the  torch  of  human  knowledge. 

The  renown  of  Charlemagne  extended  to  Asia  ;  he  entered 
into  a  correspondence  with  the  famous  Caliph  of  the  Saracens, 
Haroun  Alraschid,  a  man  who  greatly  contributed  towards 
polishing  and  enlightening  the  Arabians,  and  who  preferred  the 
friendship  of  the  king  of  France  to  that  of  all  the  princes  of 
Europe ;  for  none  like  Charlemagne  possessed  a  desire  for  in- 
tellectual  greatness. 

After  the  death  of  Charlemagne,  which  took  place  in  the 
year  814,  Europe  became  involved  in  still  greater  mental 
darkness  than  before. 

On  the  separation  of  the  Roman  Empire  into  the  Eastern  and 
Western  Empires,  and  the  latter,  weakened  by  luxury  and 
effeminacy,  had  fallen  an  easy  prey  into  the  hands  of  barbari- 
ans, the  Empire  of  the  East,  though  feeble,  yet  preserved  the 
precious  deposits  of  ancient  literature ;  but  the  greater  part  of 
the  learned,  occupied  with  the  subtleties  of  scholastic  theology, 
made  no  effort  to  enlarge  the  boundaries  of  natural  science. 
Religious  intolerance  drove  from  the  empire  many  enlightened 
men,  who,  banished  by  the  emperor  Theodosius,  carried  among 
the  Arabs  the  taste  for  Greek  and  Latin  literature,  and  founded 
schools  upon  the  shores  of  the  Euphrates,  where  they  taught 
rhetoric,  languages  and  medicine. 

The  Arabs,  fond  of  mysteries,  and  led  by  their  genius  and 
ardent  imaginations,  to  the  cultivation  of  poetry  and  works  of 
fiction,  seemed  to  have  little  taste  for  sciences  which  required 
assiduous  application  and  patient  investigation.  Under  Maho- 
met, urged  on  by  fanaticism,  they  were  the  conquerors  and 
scourges  of  the  civilized  world.  Alexandria  experienced  their 
ruthless  violence.  This  city,  by  turns  the  asylum  and  the 
tomb  of  letters,  had  witnessed,  under  the  first  of  the  Caesars,  the 
destruction  of  the  library  collected  by  the  Ptolemies ;  under 
Aurelian,  that  founded  by  Augustus ;  under  Theodosius,  that 
which  Antony  had  given  to  Cleopatra;  and  for  the  fourth  time 
in  possession  of  an  immense  collection  of  books,  acquired 
through  her  love  for  philosophy,  this  city  saw  her  magnificent 
library  reduced  to  ashes  by  the  victorious  Saracens. 

This  barbarous  but  noble  race  at  length  became  imbued  with 
the  love  of  science  ;  a  succession  of  caliphs,  (among  whom 
was  Haroun  Alraschid,  already  spoken  of  as  the  friend  of 
Charlemagne,)  by  their  devotion  to  learning,  rendered  Bagdad 
the  most  enlightened  city  of  the  earth.  Their  learned  men 
began  to  construct  maps  of  conquered  countries,  and  to  de- 
Separation  of  the  Roman  Empire  :  its  effects  upon  literature — the  Arabs — 
Haroun  Alraschid. 


HISTORY  OF  BOTANY.  309 

scribe  objects  of  natural  history  ;  distant  voyages  extended 
and  multiplied  their  commercial  relations  ;  and  mathematics, 
medicine,  and  natural  history,  were  cultivated  with  ardour. 

When  the  Arabs  had  conquered  Spain,  they  carried  thither 
letters  and  arts,  and  their  schools  became  celebrated  through- 
out the  world.  In  the  llth  century  the  French,  Italians,  Ger- 
mans and  English,  went  to  them  to  learn  the  elements  of  sci- 
ence. The  Arabians  preserved  their  superiority  in  the  scien- 
ces, at  least,  if  not  in  literature,  until  towards  the  close  of  the 
15th  century.  But  when  this  people,  divested  gradually  of 
their  European  conquests,  were  at  last  driven  from  Spain  into 
Africa,  they  seemed,  as  if  by  instinct,  to  replunge  into  the  sav- 
age ignorance  from  which  they  had  been  drawn  by  the  efforts 
of  a  few  great  minds. 

The  Arabs  had  considered  plants  more  as  physicians  and 
agriculturists,  than  as  botanists ;  but  although  their  descriptions 
of  plants  were  imperfect,  their  labours  were  not  useless  to 
botanical  science.  They  discovered  many  plants  of  Persia, 
India,  and  China,  which  were  unknown  to  the  ancients.  They, 
however,  fell  into  the  error  of  dwelling  more  upon  the  works 
of  Aristotle,  Theophrastus,  Dioscorides,  and  Pliny,  than  of  ob- 
serving nature  :  almost  believing  nature  herself  must  be  wrong, 
when  she  deviated  from  those  celebrated  philosophers. 

The  Crusades,  commencing  at  the  close  of  the  1 1th  century, 
and  continuing  until  towards  the  middle  of  the  13th,  prove  the 
barbarity  of  the  times ;  yet  we  cannot  doubt  that  these  distant 
and  romantic  expeditions  were  suggested  by  the  desire  of 
change,  and  the  vague  wish  to  see  and  to  know  new  things ; 
and  hastened  the  awakening  of  the  human  mind  from  its  long 
sleep  of  ages. 

The  12th  and  13th  centuries,  witnessed  in  Italy  the  revival 
of  a  taste  for  letters  and  the  fine  arts.  The  commerce  of  that 
country  was  flourishing,  the  people  made  long  voyages  by  sea, 
and  in  the  relations  which  they  published,  spoke  of  the  vegeta- 
ble productions  of  the  countries  they  had  visited,  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  excited  the  curiosity  of  the  nations  of  Europe. 

About  this  period,  it  is  supposed,  herbariums,  or  collections 
of  dried  plants,  began  to  be  prepared.  This  was  an  important 
era  in  botanical  science  ;  for  nature  is  ever  true,  and  incapa- 
ble of  leading  into  error,  while  descriptions,  or  even  drawings, 
may  often  give  false  views  of  natural  objects. 

The  science  of  botany,  was  not  enriched  by  a  single  work  of 
any  merit,  from  the  fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  a  period  which 
marked  the  decay  of  literature,  until  the  1 5th  century.  Those, 

Schools  of  Arabs  in  Spain— Their  labours  of  some  use  to  botanical  science- 
Crusades— Revival  of  literature— Herbariums  composed. 


310  HISTORY  OF  BOTANY. 

in  the  dark  ages,  who  pretended  to  any  knowledge  of  plants, 
only  quoted  from  the  Greek  and  Roman  writers,  but  they  were 
ignorant  even  of  the  principles  of  tin-  lan^un^i-s  in  which  their 
works  were  written.  In  the  15th  century  Italy  was  governed 
by  wise  princes,  who  were  influenced  by  a  desire  to  promote 
knowledge  among  their  people.  They  invited  to  their  country 
learned  men  from  Greece,  from  whom  they  might  learn  the 
language  of  Homer  and  Aristotle. 

At  this  time  the  Turks  threatened  Constantinople,  and  that 
capital  of  the  empire  of  the  East  at  length  fell  into  their  hands. 
The  literature  of  Greece  now  took  refuge  in  Italy  ;  the  ancient 
languages  were  revived,  and  at  this  time  translations  of  ancient 
writers,  with  learned  commentaries,  were  given.  But  these 
labours,  although  exercising  an  important  influence  upon  litera- 
ture, were  not  equally  fortunate  with  respect  to  the  progress  of 
natural  history.  The  learned  writings  of  antiquity  were  accu- 
rately studied,  but  blinded  by  the  brilliancy  of  great  names, 
men  of  learning  looked  not  upon  nature  ;  they  had  yet  to  learn, 
that  without  examining  and  comparing  real  objects,  there  can 
be  no  solid  foundation  in  natural  history. 

At  the  period  of  which  we  are  now  speaking,  a  physician  of 
Germany  published  some  indifferent  descriptions  of  plants,  ac- 
companied by  a  few  engravings.  This  connexion  of  drawing 
and  botany,  although  the  whole  was  badly  executed,  \v as  con- 
sidered as  an  important  improvement  in  the  science. 

While  Italy  was  thus  a  second  time  enriched  with  the  litera- 
ry treasures  of  Greece,  Spain  and  Portugal  were  heeominir  en- 
lightened by  intercourse  with  foreign  nations.  The  Portuguese 
extended  their  voyages  to  the  western  coasts  of  Africa,  and  the 
Cape  do  Verd  islands;  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  was  at  length 
discovered,  and  Vasco,  de  Gama,  sailing  around  this  cape, 
•  reached  the  East  Indies.  It  was  at  this  period  that  Christopher 
Columbus  discovered  the  NEW  WORLD. 

This  event,  so  important  to  the  old  world,  is  to  us  who  in- 
habit  this  pleasant  and  favoured  country,  one  of  deep  interest. 
Ages  upon  ages  passed  on  after  the  world  was  created,  and 
America  remained,  with  regard  to  the  Eastern  continent,  as 
though  she  existed  not.  The  lofty  Andes  raised  their  snowy 
heads  to  the  clouds,  the  majestic  Amazon  rolled  onwards  to  the 
Atlantic,  our  lakes  spread  out  their  vast  expanse  of  waters,  our 
own  Hudson  and  Connecticut  received  their  tributary  streams, 
and  bore  them  to  the  ocean;  but  to  what  people  were  these 
grandeurs  presented,  and  what  had  been  the  changes  in  the 

Constantinople  taken  by  the  Turks,  and  the  literature  of  Greece  transferred 
to  Italy — New  World  discovered — What  was  the  history  of  America  before 
this  period  ? 


HISTORY  OF  BOTANY.  311 

moral  world,  while  nature  had  moved  on  in  her  unchanging 
course  ?  History  is  silent !  But  while  in  the  old  world  em- 
pires  had  heen  rising,  continuing  for  centuries  stationary,  and 
then  decaying ;  succeeded  and  succeeded  by  others  pursuing 
the  same  track  :  were  no  changes  going  on  in  the  American 
continent?  Had  no  mighty  nations  ever  existed  here?  Had 
no  arts  or  letters  been  cultivated  ?  Had  the  savage  Indian  for 
thousands  of  years  been  sole  lord  of  one  half  of  the  world  1 
And  when,  and  how,  did  the  first  inhabitants  of  this  continent 
come  from  Asia,  where  man  was  placed  at  -his  creation? 
These  are  inquiries  which  naturally  arise,  on  tracing  the  his- 
toric page  through  so  long  a  period  of  time,  until  suddenly  this 
new  world  bursts  upon  our  vision !  But,  although  many  specu- 
lations have  from  time  to  time  appeared,  respecting  the  proba- 
ble history  of  America,  all,  until  its  discovery  by  Columbus, 
remains  a  sealed  book. 


LECTURE  XLY. 

History  of  Botany,  from  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century 
to  the  time  of  Linnaus. 

WE  have  now  traced  the  progress  of  botanical  knowledge 
from  the  earliest  periods  of  the  world  to  the  discovery  of 
America.  About  this  time  Botanic  gardens  began  to  be  culti- 
vated :  these  afforded  new  opportunities  for  investigation,  by 
comprehending  the  vegetables  of  all  countries  within  such 
limits  as  enabled  the  botanist  to  compare  them ;  and  to  watch 
their  growth  and  different  stages  of  developement. 

From  the  days  of  Theophrastus  until  the  beginning  of  the 
16th  century,  botany,  instead  of  becoming  more  perfect,  had 
been  rendered  more  obscure.  This  was  not  owing  to  want  of 
attention  or  labour,  but  to  the  false  rules  of  philosophy  which 
had  so  long  prevailed. 

At  length  the  cause  of  the  evil  seemed  to  be  discovered. 
Many  writers  protested  against  the  erroneous  opinions  of  their 
times;  they  said,  "our  blind  respect  for  the  ancients  is  an  in- 
surmountable obstacle  to  the  progress  of  botany.  We  expect 
to  find  every  where  the  plants  of  Theophrastus,  Dioscorides, 
and  Pliny ;  whereas  they  did  not  know  one  hundredth  part  of 
the  plants  which  cover  the  globe.  The  first  of  them  never 
went  out  of  Greece ;  the  second  left  only  unconnected  notes, 

Botanic  gardens  first  cultivated — Botanists  began  to  discover  obstacles  to 
the  progress  of  the  science. 


312  HISTORY  OF  BOTANY. 

treating  without  order  upon  the  medicinal  qualities  of  plants  ; 
and  Pliny  copied  these  notes  without  comment  or  criticism. 
We  cannot  apply  to  the  plants  of  Germany  or  France,  the 
names  under  which  the  ancients  described  those  of  Italy, 
Greece,  and  Asia  :  before  studying  the  plants  of  foreign  coun. 
tries,  we  ought  to  know  those  of  our  own.  Of  what  use  are 
disputes  about  the  nature  and  qualities  of  species,  when  we  are 
not  able  to  distinguish  one  from  another.  The  true  method  of 
doing  this  is  to  explore  the  plains,  valleys  and  mountains,  to 
examine  and  compare  the  plants  of  our  own  and  foreign  coun- 
tries. Libraries  alone  are  insufficient  to  make  botanists." 

These  reflections  led  to  a  happy  revolution,  not  only  in  this 
science,  but  in  all  others ;  it  may  be  called  the  era  of  true 
philosophy.*  Yet  the  principles,  which  were  now  discovered, 
were  not  much  applied  to  science  until  the  time  of  Bacon, 
Newton,  Linnoeus  and  Locke ;  and  it  remained  for  the  late 
Thomas  Brown,  of  Edinburgh,  to  show  that  the  human  mind 
itself,  is  subject  to  the  same  general  laws  of  inquiry  which  now 
regulate  investigations  in  the  physical  sciences. 

Up  to  the  period  of  which  we  are  now  speaking,  plants  had 
only  been  described  in  alphabetical  order;  about  this  time 
some  German  botanists  attempted  a  collection  of  individual 
plants  into  species ;  this  improvement  was  received  with  much 
approbation. 

These  species  were  arranged  according  to  certain  general 
resemblances,  or  natural  relations ;  thus  we  see  that  natural 
methods  were  prior  to  any  attempts  at  an  artificial  system. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century,  we  find  the  names 
of  many  who  were  engaged  in  investigating  the  vegetable  king, 
dom.  Some  are  commemorated  by  the  names  of  plants; 
Leonard  Fusch  of  Germany,  by  the  plant  Fuschsia ;  Lobel, 
physician  to  James  I.  by  the  Lobelia ;  and  Lonicer  by  the 
Lonicera. 

Lobel  distinguished  the  cotyledons  of  seeds,  and  divided 
monocotyledonous,  from  dicotyledonous  plants,  and  attempted 
to  form  families  by  grouping  species  according  to  their  natural 

*  Lord  Bacon  is  generally  considered  as  having  first  taught  the  proper  meth- 
od of  studying  the  sciences,  viz  :  by  ascending  from  facts  to  principles ;  this  is 
called  the  method  of  induction.  It  has  recently  been  asserted  by  an  able 
writer  in  one  of  our  first  American  periodicals,  that  Bacon  was  not  the  author 
of  the  inductive  philosophy,  but  that  he  borrowed  his  rules  of  philosophizing 
from  Aristotle,  whose  real  principles  had  for  ages  been  misunderstood.  It  is  to 
be  hoped  that  men  of  talents  will  not  so  far  depart  from  the  true  rules  of  philo- 
sophizing, as  to  devote  that  time  in  contending  about  their  author,  which  might 
be  profitably  applied  in  the  application  of  these  rules  to  the  investigation  of 
truth  and  nature. 

Era  of  true  philosophy — Improvements  of  German  botanists— Botanists  of 
the  16th  century. 


HISTORY  OF  BOTANY.  313 

relations.  Zaluzian  of  Bohemia  laboured  to  perfect  the  natu- 
ral groups  of  former  botanists  ;  he  is  the  first  of  the  moderns 
who  positively  affirmed  the  existence  of  stamens  and  pistils  in 
all  species  of  plants,  and  suggested  the  necessity  of  these 
organs. 

But,  notwithstanding  the  labours  of  many  learned  men,  little 
real  improvement  would  have  been  made  in  the  science  of 
botany,  had  there  not,  at  that  time,  existed  some  minds  of  su- 
perior genius,  who  turned  their  attention  to  tracing  some  proper 
method  of  classification.  These  were  Gesner,  Clusius,  Ca3sal- 
pinus,  and  Bauhin ;  of  the  latter  name  were  two  brothers, 
"both  of  whom  are  deservedly  celebrated. 

Gesner,  a  native  of  Switzerland,  born  in  1516,  was  of  an 
obscure  and  humble  origin,  but  possessed  of  a  powerful  and 
penetrating  mind.  He  attempted  to  make  a  general  collection 
of  the  objects  of  Natural  History  ;  he  explored  the  Alps,  and 
discovered  many  plants  until  then  unknown.  He  is  distin- 
guished from  those  who  had  gone  before  him,  in  his  sugges- 
tions that  there  existed  in  the  vegetable  kingdom  groups  or 
genera,  each  one  composed  of  many  species,  united  by  similar 
characters  of  the  flower  and  fruit.  Soon  after  the  publication 
of  this  opinion,  botanists  began  to  understand  that  the  different 
families  of  plants  have  among  themselves  natural  relations, 
founded  upon  resemblances  and  affinities,  and  that  the  most 
obvious  are  not  always  the  most  important.  These  are  fun- 
damental truths  ;  and  the  distinction  of  species,  the  establishment 
of  genera,  and  of  natural  families,  seemed  to  follow  of  course 
after  these  principles  were  once  established. 

Clusius  was  born  in  1526  ;  his  parents  had  destined  him  for 
the  profession  of  law,  but  his  decided  taste  for  botany  induced 
him  to  abandon  this  profession.  He  was  learned  in  the  ancient 
and  modern  languages,  but  his  enthusiasm  for  natural  history 
induced  him  to  lay  aside  every  other  pursuit.  He  travelled 
over  almost  all  the  west  of  Europe,  in  order  to  make  discove- 
ries in  the  vegetable  kingdom  ;  and  soon  excelled  all  the  bota- 
nists of  the  age  in  the  knowledge  both  of  native  plants  and 
exotics.  He  had  the  direction  of  the  imperial  garden  at  Vi- 
enna, and  afterwards  was  a  public  professor  of  botany  at  Ley- 
den.  His  passion  for  the  study  of  plants  was  not  enfeebled  by 
age  or  infirmities ;  his  enthusiasm  in  this  science  terminated 
only  with  his  life.  Before  his  time,  the  art  of  describing 
plants  with  precision  and  accuracy  was  unknown ;  but  unlike 
the  descriptions  of  his  predecessors,  his  were  neither  faulty 

Gesner — How  distinguished  from  his  predecessors — Clusius — the  first  who 
proposed  to  divide  plants  into  classes. 

27 


314  HISTORY  OF  BOTANY. 

from  superfluous  terms,  nor  from  the  omission  of  important 
circumstances. 

Caesalpinus,  a  native  of  Florence,  who  was  contemporary 
with  Clusius,  proposed  to  form  species  into  classes.  The  char- 
acters which  he  employed  for  this  purpose,  were,  the  duration 
and  size  of  plants ;  presence  or  absence  of  jloicers;  the  number 
of  cotyledons ;  the  situation  of  the  seed  as  erect  or  pendant ; 
the  adherence  of  the  pericarp  to  the  seeds ;  the  number  of 
cells  in  the  pericarp,  and  the  number  of  seeds  which  they  con- 
tained ;  the  adherence  of  the  calyx  to  the  germ  ;  and  the  na- 
ture of  the  root,  whether  bulbous  or  fibrous.  This  method  was 
too  imperfect  to  be  followed,  having  neither  the  simplicity  or 
the  unity  to  render  its  application  useful. 

John  Bauhin,  though  younger  than  Gesner,  was  his  friend 
and  pupil ;  he  composed  a  general  history  of  plants ;  this  was 
a  work  evincing  great  learning  and  accurate  investigation. 
Gaspard  Bauhin,  the  younger  brother,  no  less  active  and 
learned,  and  endowed  with  a  still  more  penetrating  genius, 
conceived  the  design  of  a  work  which  should  contain  a  history 
of  all  known  plants,  together  with  the  different  names  which 
other  writers  had  applied  to  the  same  plant.  Clusius  and  the 
elder  Bauhin  had  imagined  something  like  a  genus  of  plants, 
formed  by  the' grouping  of  similar  species,  but  Gaspard  Bauhin 
expressed  this  more  decidedly  in  remarks  upon  generic  distinc- 
tions ;  his  work,  the  result  of  forty  years'  labour,  was  of  great 
assistance  to  Linnaeus,  in  perfecting  our  present  system  of 
botany. 

We  find  in  looking  back  upon  the  labours  of  botanists  during 
the  16th  century,  that  more  had  been  accomplished  than  during 
any  former  period ;  the  character  of  novelty  and  originally 
exhibited  in  these  researches,  is  highly  creditable  to  those  who 
thus  led  the  way  in  the  march  of  improvement. 

The  17th  century,  in  its  commencement,  was  not  favourable 
to  the  sciences.  Europe  was  agitated  by  continual  wars,  and 
the  arts  of  peace  were  neglected ;  but  in  the  last  part  of  that 
age,  a  taste  for  natural  history  revived ;  men  of  highly  gifted 
minds  applied  themselves  to  the  study  of  botany,  and  many 
undertook  long  voyages  with  the  sole  design  of  examining 
foreign  plants.  Botanists  were  astonished  at  the  great  number 
of  interesting  plants  discovered  by  travellers,  in  the  region  of 
South  Africa,  around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  in  the  East 
India  Islands. 

At  this  period  the  plants  of  our  own  country  began  to  excitf 

Ceesalpinus — Characters  employed  by  him  in  the  formation  of  classes — The 
Bauhins — Retrospect  of  the  16th  century — Commencement  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury—Last part  of  that  age. 


HISTORY  OF  BOTANY.  315 

the  curiosity  of  scientific  Europeans.  Among  the  number  of 
voyagers  to  America,  was  a  Roman  Catholic  Priest,  Plumier, 
celebrated  for  his  mathematical  and  botanical  knowledge ;  he 
made  three  voyages,  and  gave  drawings  and  descriptions  of 
more  American  species  than  any  other  traveller  had  done. 

We  now  find  many  who  were  distinguished  by  their  efforts 
in  the  cause  of  science,  but  a  notice  of  each  individual  would 
carry  us  beyond  our  limits,  and  prevent  that  clear  conception  of 
the  state  of  the  science,  which  attention  to  a  few  conspicuous 
facts  may  produce. 

Botanists  now  began  to  observe  the  stamens  and  pistils  of 
plants ;  it  was  suggested  that  the  science  would  remain  imper- 
fect as  long  as  species  and  genera  were  undefined.  Orders 
and  classes  also  were  recommended.  Natural  resemblances 
and  affinities  were  studied.  A  work  was  written  upon  the 
umbelliferous  plants  ;*  it  was  the  first  attempt  at  describing  in 
one  mass,  any  single  group  of  plants  by  characters  peculiar 
to  the  whole.  This  was  followed  by  several  attempts  to  form 
a  natural  method  of  classification ;  among  the  most  approved 
of  these  methods  was  that  of  Ray,  who  published  a  work 
called  "  A  General  History  of  Plants ;"  in  this  he  divided  all 
plants  into  33  classes,  27  of  which  were  composed  of  herbs, 
the  rest  of  trees. 

The  first  botanist  who  thought  of  classing  plants  without 
any  reference  to  their  being  either  herbs  or  trees,  was  a  Ger- 
man, of  the  name  of  Rivinius,  who  proposed  to  consider  as 
the  foundation  of  classification,  the  absence  or  presence  of  flow- 
ers ;  tJie  manner  in  which  they  were  situated,  or  their  inflores- 
cence ;  the  number  of  petals ;  the  regular  or  irregular  form  of 
the  corolla ;  the  adherence  or  non-adherence  of  the  calyx  to  the 
germ ;  the  nature  of  the  pericarp ;  the  number  of  seeds ;  and 
of  cotyledons. 

A  botanist  of  the  name  of  Magnol,  at  this  time  was  honour- 
ed by  having  his  name  given  to  the  splendid  Magnolia,  an 
American  plant,  which  then  began  to  be  known  in  Europe. 

Joseph  Pitton  de  Tournefort,  was  born  in  1656.  While 
very  young,  he  discovered  an  enthusiastic  fondness  for  botani- 
cal pursuits ;  he  had  been  destined,  by  his  friends,  for  a  pro- 
fession ;  but  his  genius  seemed  so  strongly  bent  upon  the  study 
of  nature,  that  he  was  at  length  permitted  ,to  indulge  without 
restraint  in  his  favourite  pursuits.  He  ranged  over  the  Alps 

*  The  author  of  this  was  Robert  Morrison,  a  Scotchman.  These  monogra- 
phies  or  descriptions  of  single  families,  are  now  of  great  value  ;  no  botanist 
can  thoroughly  investigate  the  whole  vegetable  kingdom,  but  by  close  attention 
to  one  department,  important  discoveries  may  be  made. 

Various  improvements  in  botany—Ray— Rivinius— Magnol— Tournefort, 


316  HISTORY  OF  BOTANY. 

and  Pyrenees,  and  many  provinces  of  France,  collecting  the 
flowery  treasures  offered  by  those  fertile  regions;  often  in 
peril  from  banditti,  and  exposing  his  life  to  hazards  in  climbing 
terrific  precipices,  or  amidst  the  glaciers  of  the  mountains. 

The  method  of  Tournefort,*  which  was  founded  upon  the 
form  of  the  corolla,  although  imperfect,  greatly  assisted  the 
progress  of  that  botanist  who  stands  unrivalled  in  this  depart- 
ment  of  Natural  History.  You  do  not  need  to  be  told,  that 
we  here  refer  to  Linnaeus. 

You  will  observe  that  the  attempts  of  botanists,  until  this 
time,  had  been  chiefly  directed  towards  the  attainment  of  some 
proper  method  for  the  arrangement  of  plants ;  the  attention 
of  some  investigating  minds  was  now  turned  towards  their 
Anatomy  and  Physiology.  Since  the  days  of  the  first  Greek 
naturalists,  these  departments  of  botanical  science  had  lain 
neglected  ;  but  the  confused  opinions  of  the  ancients  now 
served  to  suggest  experiments,  which  resulted  in  new  observa- 
tions and  solid  discoveries. 

The  invention  of  the  microscope  threw  light  upon  the  myste- 
ries of  nature,  which,  without  this  instrument,  must  ever  have 
remained  in  obscurity  ;  by  its  assistance  botanists  studied  the 
internal  structure  of  vegetables ;  they  described  the  heart, 
woody  and  pith;  they  perceived  the  newly  formed  bud,  yet  in- 
visible to  the  naked  eye  ;  the  future  plant  existing  in  the  bulbous 
roots,  and  even  in  the  seed;  pores  were  discovered,  which 
were  found  to  be  the  organs  of  the  expiration  and  inspiration 
of  gasses,  thrown  out  as  noxious,  or  inhaled  as  nutritious.-)- 
The  importance  of  the  stamens  and  pistils  as  essential  to  the 
perfection  of  the  seed  of  vegetables  began  to  be  suspected. 

As  yet,  however,  the  science  of  botany  lay  in  scattered 
fragments  of  various  imperfect  and  contending  systems :  much 
labour  had  been  bestowed,  and  great  improvements  made,  but 
there  seemed  to  be  no  central  point  around  which  these  im- 
provements might  be  collected  ;  the  learned  world  were  sensi- 
ble of  the  deficiency  ;  but  it  required  genius,  great  observa- 
tion of  nature,  and  courage  to  stem  the  tide  of  popular  preju- 
dices, in  him  who  should  come  forward  to  attempt  the  work  of 
reform. 

Charles  Linnaeus,  an  inhabitant  of  Sweden,  suddenly  emer- 
ging from  obscurity,  offered  to  the  world  a  system  of  botany, 
so  far  superior  to  all  others,  as  to  leave  no  room  for  dispute  as 

*  See  part  III. 

t  Leuwenhoek,  Grew,  Malpigh,  and  Camerarius,  are  among  the  first  of  tno 
moderns  who  investigated  the  internal  structure  of  vegetables. 


Attention  of  botanists  turned  towards  anatomy  and  physiology— Microscope 
—Science  of  botany  yet  imperfect— Linnaeus, 


HISTORY  OF  BOTANY.  317 

to  its  comparative  merit.  All  preceding  systems  were  immedi- 
ately laid  aside,  and  the  classification  of  Linnaeus  was  receiv- 
ed with  scarcely  a  dissenting  voice.  What  this  system  was, 
you  have  not  now  to  learn,  since  it  has  been  the  basis  of  your 
botanical  studies.  Linnaeus  extended  the  principles  of  his 
classification  to  the  animal  and  mineral  kingdoms  ;  in  the  lan- 
guage of  an  eminent  botanist,*  "  His  magic  pen  turned  the 
wilds  of  Lapland  into  fairy  fields,  and  the  animals  of  Sweden 
came  to  be  classed  by  him  as  they  went  to  Adam  in  the  garden 
of  Eden  to  receive  each  his  particular  name." 


LECTURE  XLVI. 

History  of  Botany  from  the  time  of  Linnaus  to  the  present. 


was  born  in  1707  ;  his  father  was  a  clergyman, 
and  had  designed  his  son  for  the  same  sacred  office  ;  but 
seeing  him  leave  his  studies  to  gather  flowers,  he  inferred 
that  he  possessed  a  weak  and  trifling  mind,  unfit  for  close  in- 
vestigation ;  and  was  about  to  put  him  to  a  mechanical  em- 
ployment, when  some  discerning  persons  perceiving  in  his 
devotion  to  the  works  of  nature,  the  germ  of  a  great  and 
lofty  mind,  placed  him  in  a  situation  favourable  to  the  de-  . 
velopement  of  his  peculiar  talents,  where  he  .was  allowed 
without  restraint,  to  study  the  book  of  nature,  "  This  elder 
Scripture,  writ  by  God's  own  hand." 

Linnaeus  formed  anew  the  language  of  botanical  science  ; 
every  organ  of  the  plant  he  defined  with  precision,  and  gave 
it  an  appropriate  name  ;  every  important  modification  was  de- 
signated by  a  particular  term.  Thus  comparisons  became 
easy,  and  confusion  was  avoided.  The  characters  of  plants 
appeared  in  a  new  light.  Each  species  took,  besides  the 
name  of  the  genus  to  which  it  belonged^  a  specific  name 
which  recalled  some  peculiarity  distinctive  of  the  species. 
Before  that  time  the  species,  instead  of  being  thus  designated, 
required  in  some  cases  a  whole  sentence  to  express  the  name. 

But  what  most  tended  to  render  the  works  of  Linnaeus 
popular,  was  his  artificial  system,  in  which  he  had  made  the 
stamens  and  pistils  subservient  to  a  most  simple  and  clear 
arrangement  ;  he  remarked  the  different  insertion  of  the 
stamens;  their  union  by  means  of  their  filaments  had  been 

*  Sir  James  E.  Smith. 

Birth  of  Linnaeus,  &c.—  What  were  the  improvements  made  by  Linnaeus  ?-— 
What  most  rendered  his  works  popular  ? 
27* 


318  HISTORY  OF  BOTANY. 

before  observed,  but  he  employed  tliem  in  a  manner  entirely 
original. 

This  "  Northern  Light"  as  he  has  sometimes  been  termed, 
contributed  to  the  progress  of  physiology  both  by  his  own 
discoveries,  and  by  improving  upon  the  suggestions  of  those 
who  had  gone  before  him.  In  the  details  of  science,  he  was 
no  less  accurate,  than  bold  and  comprehensive  in  his  general 
views.  The  world  knew  not  which  to  admire  the  most,  the 
multiplicity,  the  novelty,  or  the  profound  views  of  this  modern 
Aristotle.  His  school  became  the  resort  of  men  of  science 
from  all  Europe  ;  and  he  seemed  to  have  acquired  that  influ- 
ence over  the  human  mind,  which  had  been  peculiar  to  the 
ancient  philosophers  of  Greece. 

The  defects  of  this  great  man,  for  human  nature  is  never 
without  its  imperfections,  were  that  he  sometimes  carried  too 
far  a  favourite  idea ;  endowed  with  a  brilliant  imagination,  he 
was  at  times  somewhat  blinded  by  the  beauty  of  his  own  con- 
ceptions,  and  strove  to  reconcile  nature  to  the  visions  of  his 
own  fancy. 

We  have  in  our  investigations  of  the  artificial  system,  occa- 
sionally pointed  out  in  it  some  imperfections,  particularly  in? 
the  separation  of  natural  families  ;  but  no  means  of  remedying 
these  have  yet  been  found,  and  we  still,  after  the  lapse  of  near 
a  century,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  alterations,  receive  this 
system  as  left  by  its  author. 

Linnaeus  died  in  1778 ;  he  is  honoured  among  the  scientific, 
by  a  title  far  more  proud  than  any  hereditary  distinctions ;  he 
is  termed  "  Prince  of  Naturalists."  Ten  years  after  his  death, 
a  society  distinguished  by  his  name,  was  founded  in  London ; 
tjiis  society  is  now  in  possession  of  his  library,  herbariums,  col- 
lec>k>ns  of  insects  and  shells,  with  numerous  manuscripts.  Sir 
James  Edward  Smith  was  the  founder  of  this  society,  and  its 
first  and  only  president  until  his  death,  which  has  recently  ol- 
curred.  He  translated  the  writings  of  Linnaeus,  (which  were 
originally  in  Latin,)  and  illustrated  them  by  his  own  comments  : 
no  one,  perhaps,  has  done  more  towards  rendering  botanical 
science  accessible  to  all  classes  of  people  than  this  elegant 
writer. 

The  study  of  plants,  after  the  discoveries  and  classifications 
of  Linnaeus,  became,  in  a  degree,  general.  The  knowledge 
of  vegetable  physiology  began  to  be  usefully  applied  to  agri- 
culture. Duhamel  of  France  very  successfully  laboured  to 
exhibit  the  connexion  between  the  science  of  botany  and  the 

How  did  he  contribute  to  the  progress  of  physiology,  &c.?— His  defects- 
Death  of  Linnaeus— Linnsean  society  in  London— Botany  after  the  death  of 
Linnaeus. 


HISTORY  OF  BOTANY.  819 

cultivation  of  plants.  Bossuet  of  Geneva  proved  by  experi- 
ments that  the  vascular  system  of  plants  is  tubular  and  tran- 
sparent; and  that  leaves  perform  the  office  of  respiration. 

Grew  of  England  ascertained  the  existence  of  the  cambium, 
and  Duhamel  afterwards  proved  that  it  was  distinct  from  the 
sap  and  proper  juices.  The  latter  opposed  the  idea,  till  then 
entertained,  that  earth  and  water  were  the  only  food  of  plants ; 
he  proved  that  the  various  solids  and  fluids  diffused  in  the  soil 
and  atmosphere,  are  all  important  to  vegetation. 

The  observations  of  Priestly,  Saussure,  and  others,  aided 
by  the  discoveries  made  in  pneumatic  chemistry,  of  the  exis- 
tence of  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  carbonic  acid  gases,  formed  a 
new  era  in  the  history  of  vegetable  physiology.  It  was  proved 
that  vegetables  do  ultimately  consist  of  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and 
carbon,  and  sometimes  of  a  small  quantity  of  nitrogen,  com- 
bined  with  mineral  salts,  and  often  some  silex,  sulphur,  and 
iron,  which  seem  important  to  vegetable  life.  These  elemen- 
tary substances  were  found  to  be  diffused  through  air  and  wa- 
ter, and  the  animal  and  vegetable  substances  which  the  latter 
holds  in  solution ;  the  green  parts  of  vegetables  were  observed 
to  exhale  oxygen  in  the  light,  and  carbonic  acid  gas  in  the 
dark  ;  and  the  carbon  left  by  the  decomposition  ofthe  carbonic 
acid,  was  shown  to  be  incorporated  into  the  vegetable  sub- 
stance, giving  to  the  wood  its  strength  and  hardness. 

The  only  naturalist  who  can  bear  any  comparison  with  Lin- 
naeus, is  Bernard  de  Jussieu.  He  was  remarkable  for  the  ex- 
tent of  his  knowledge,  the  penetration  of  his  genius,  and  the 
solidity  of  his  judgment.  He  is  said  to  have  been  unambitious. 
The  love  of  truth  and  science  were  with  him  sufficient  excite- 
ments to  the  most  severe  labour.  "  Many  of  our  contempora- 
ries," says  Mirbel,  "  knew  this  sage ;  they  say  that  never  have 
they  seen  so  much  knowledge  combined  with  so  high  a  degree 
of  candour  and  modesty."  To  this  botanist  we  are  indebted 
for  the  natural  method  of  classification,  with  which  you  have 
been  made  acquainted.* 

Jussieu  proposed  a  method  of  classing  plants  according  to 
certain  distinctions  in  the  seed,  which  were  found  to  be  univer- 
sal ;  this  method  was  perfected  and  published  by  his  nephew, 
Antoinc- Laurent  de  Jussieu,  and  is  now  universally  received 
as  the  best  mode  of  natural  classification  which  has  yet  been 
discovered.  We  call  this  method  natural,  because  it  aims  to 
bring  into  groups  such  genera  of  plants  as  resemble  each  other 
in  medicinal  and  other  properties,  while  the  system  of  Linnreus 

*  See  Parts  I.  and  III. 

Grew  and  Duhamel — Priestly,  &c. — Character  of  Jossieu. 


320  HISTORY  OF  BOTANY. 

is  called  artificial,  because  by  a  certain  rule,  plants  which  have 
no  such  resemblance  in  their  properties  are  brought  together. 
We  therefore  find  in  one  of  the  Linna?an  classes,  the  poisonous 
flag  and  th*  nutritious  grass,  the  grain  which  supports  life,  and 
the  darnel  which  destroys  it ;  in  another  the  healthful  potatoe 
and  the  poison  mandrake,  the  deadly  hemlock  and  the  grateful 
coriander.  We  might  thus  go  through  this  system  and  con- 
stantly  meet  with  similar  contrasts  in  the  qualities  of  the  plants 
which  are  here  collected  into  the  same  classes.  Nor  are  their 
external  appearances  less  unlike  ;  for  here  the  oleander  and 
pigweed,  the  tulip  and  the  dock  meet  in  the  same  classes.  This 
system,  it  should  always  be  remembered,  is  not  the  whole 
science  of  botany  ;  but  is  the  key  to  the  natural  method,  by 
which,  alone,  we  should  find  great  difficulty  in  ascertaining  the 
names  of  plants  ;  it  is,  as  it  were,  a  stepping  stone  by  which 
we  must  ascend  to  the  valuable  knowledge  which  cannot  well 
be  reached  in  any  other  way.  The  more  practical  a  botanist 
becomes,  the  less  need  he  has  for  this  assistance  ;  the  eye 
becomes  tyiick  to  seize  on  natural  characters  without  reference 
to  the  dictionary,  as  the  artificial  system  is  aptly  termed.  Thus 
a  pupil  in  studying  a  language  may  in  time  be  able  in  a  de- 
gree to  dispense  with  his  dictionary  ;  but  he  could  never  have 
proceeded  thus  far  without  its  assistance.  For  more  particular 
explanations  of  Jussieu's  method,  you  are  referred  to  the  com- 
parison  of  that  with  the  method  of  Linnaeus  and  Tournefort  in 
the  remarks  on  classification. 

Adanson,  previous  to  the  time  of  the  younger  Jussieu,  had 
published  a  system  of  classification,  in  which  he  arranged 
plants  according  to  the  resemblance  observed  in  all  their  or- 
gans.  In  one  class,  all  which  had  similar  roots  were  placed ; 
in  another,  all  which  had  similar  stems ;  a  third  was  arranged 
by  resemblance  of  leaves,  in  their  forms  and  situations ;  but  the 
most  important  distinctions  he  considered  as  founded  upon  the 
organs  of  fructification. 

Among  other  botanists  we  would  notice  L.  C.  Richard,  who 
wrote  in  French  an  interesting  account  of  the  Orchideae  of 
Europe,  and  assisted  in  compiling  from  ancient  works  a  very 
useful  botanical  dictionary. 

Des  Fontaines  first  showed  that  the  stems  of  monocotyledo- 
nous  and  of  dicotyledonous  plants  differ  from  each  other  in 
their  structure,  and  modes  of  growth  ;  he  divided  them  into 
endogenous,  growing  inwardly,  as  the  palms  ;  and  exogenous, 
growing  outwardly,  as  the  oak. 

France  is  distinguished  for  the  number  and  accuracy  of  its 
naturalists.  Mirbel,  a  distinguished  professor  of  botany  in 

French  Naturalists. 


HISTORY  OF  BOTANY.  321 

Paris,  has  pursued  his  inquiries  into  the  anatomical  structure, 
and  the  physical  operations  of  plants,  to  an  extent  not  exceeded 
by  any  other  naturalist  ;  his  "  Elemens  de  Botanique"  is  a 
splendid  work,  which  forms  a  very  important  and  valuable  ad- 
dition to  a  botanical  library. 

The  Baron  Humboldt  spent  five  years  in  investigating  the 
vegetable  productions  of  the  equatorial  regions  in  America, 
and  his  remarks  on  vegetables,  as  a  criterion  of  climate,  are 
original  and  interesting. 

Josephine,  the  first  wife  of  Napoleon,  was  distinguished  for 
her  fondness  for  this  study  ;  other  ladies  of  distinction,  stimula- 
ted by  her  example,  cultivated  plants  with  reference  to  scien- 
tific observations. 

In  England,  Mrs.  Wakefield,  and  the  industrious  and  talent- 
ed Mrs.  Marcet  (author  of  Conversations  on  Natural  Philosophy, 
Chemistry,  &c.),  have  distinguished  themselves  as  the  authors 
of  useful  treatises  on  Botany. 

De  Candolle's  "  Elementary  Theory  of  Botany,"  is  highly 
valued  as  a  scientific  and  able  performance  ;  but  it  is  useful, 
rather  for  those  who  have  already  attained  a  knowledge  of  the 
elements  of  botany,  than  for  the  beginner  in  the  science. 

In  turning  from  Europe  to  the  United  States,  we  find  the 
state  of  literature  flourishing,  and  a  taste  for  the  natural  sci- 
ences becoming  extensively  diffused.  The  names  of  many  of 
our  naturalists  stand  high  in  Europe,  as  well  as  in  their  own 
country. 

Among  these  are  Silliman,  who  established  the  first  scienti- 
fic journal,*  and  encouraged  others  to  pursue  the  course  of  in- 
vestigation which  he  himself  has  followed  so  successfully.  Ea- 
ton has,  indefatigably  laboured  to  bring  science  within  the  reach 
of  every  inquirer,  by  divesting  it  of  ttfe  dress  of  foreign  lan- 
guages, and  the  parade  of  learning  ;  not  only  rendering  the 
labours  of  others  of  more  general  utility,  but  adding  to  the 
common  stock,  the  result  of  years  of  inquiry  and  observation. 

To  go  back  to  the  infancy  of  science  in  the  United  States, 
we  find  the  name  of  Bartram  stands  recorded  in  history,  as  that 
of  the  first  native  of  our  country  who  was  conspicuous  for  bo- 
tanical researches. 

Houston  investigated  the  region  of  Canada,  and  described 
many  of  its  plants ;  in  honour  of  him  is  named  the  little  flower 
HOUSTONIA  coeruka. 

*  Except  the  Mineralogical  Journal  of  Bruce,  which  ceased  after  the  appear- 
ance of  a  few  numbers. 

Females  who  have  interested  themselves  in  the  study  of  botany — Natural^ 
Jets  of  the  United  States. 


322  HISTORY  OF  BOTANY. 

Clayton  made  a  list  of  Virginian  plants,  and  is  commemorated 
in  the  beautiful  CLAYTONIA  virginica. 

Kalm,  a  pupil  of  Linnaeus,  whose  name  is  given  to  the  KAL- 
MIA  (American  laurel),  spent  three  years  in  America,  and  re- 
turned to  Europe  laden  with  botanical  treasures ;  the  sight  of 
the  American  plants  brought  by  his  pupil,  many  of  which  were 
entirely  new  to  him,  is  said  to  have  produced  such  an  effect 
upon  Linnaeus,  that  although  lying  ill  of  the  gout,  and  unable 
to  move,  his  spirits  were  rekindled,  and  in  the  delight  of  his 
mind  he  forgot  his  bodily  anguish,  and  recovered  from  his 
disease. 

Among  the  earliest  botanists  of  North  America,  were  Col- 
den,  Michaux,  and  Muhlenberg ;  Pursh  was  the  first  who  fur- 
nished a  system  of  North  American  plants,  so  arranged  as  to 
be  useful  to  the  student.  Some  of  the  first  teachers  of  the 
science  were"  Barton,  Hosack  and  Mitchell.  The  first  lecturer 
on  Botany  in  the  interor  of  North  America,  was  Professor 
Amos  Eaton.  Dr.  Bigelow  gave  a  course  of  lectures  in  Bos- 
ton, in  the  year  1813,  and  soon  after  published  his  Boston 
Flora. 

Professor  Ives  and  Dr.  Tully  did  much  in  New  England 
towards  awakening  a  zeal  for  the  science,  in  the  years  1815 
and  1616 ;  and  at  a  later  period,  Dr.  Sumner  has  pursued  and 
illustrated  the  study  with  much  ardor  and  success. 

Wan*  of  books  was  a  great  impediment  to  the  progress  of 
the  science  when  Eaton  published  his  Botanical  Dictionary 
and  Manual  of  Botany  ;  this  book  gave  a  new  impulse  to  the 
progress  of  the  science  ;  its  familiar  method  and  simple  stylo 
induced  many  to  commence  the  study.  This  was  followed  by 
many  other  works  describing  plants,  and  several  elementary 
works  ;  of  the  former* class  were  Nuttall's  Genera,  Elliott's 
Southern  Plants,  Barton's  Flora  of  Philadelphia,  Darlington's, 
Torrey's,  and  Bigelow's  Floras ;  these  furnished  descriptions 
of  most  American  Plants,  not  included  in  the  works  of  Pursh. 
Among  Elementary  books  are  "  Barton's  Elements,"  a  large 
work  containing  much  that  is  interesting  in  the  physiology  of 
plants  ;  "  Lock's  Botany,"  a  small  book,  but  exhibiting  a  plan 
of  arrangement  simple  and  methodical ;  "  Sumner's  Compen- 
dium of  Botany,"  written  in  a  beautiful  and  pure  style;  and 
more  recently,  "  Nuttall's  Elementary  Work,"  which  gives, 
in  popular  language,  more  facts  with  regard  to  plants,  than 
almost  any  other  work  of  the  kind.  In  all  the  books  which 
we  have  enumerated,  none  have  been  designed  as  a  full  and 
connected  course  of  botanical  study.  The  publication  of  our 
present  course  of  instruction,  may,  perhaps,  remove  some  ob- 

American  botanists — American  works  on  botany. 


VIEW  OF  NATURE.  323 

stacles  which  have  hitherto  impeded  the  progress  of  botanical 
information,  particularly  in  schools,  and  among  our  own  sex. 
From  some  examples  in  our  own  class,  we  see  that  even  chil- 
dren may  become  botanists,  and  lay  aside  their  toys  to  divert 
themselves  by  distinguishing  the  organs  of  plants  and  tracing 
out  their  classification.  A  few  years  since,  the  science  of 
Botany  was  confined  almost  wholly  to  those  of  the  medical 
profession,  now  it  is  within  the  reach  of  all  who  can  read  the 
English  language,  and  few  indeed  are  the  natives  of  our  re- 
public who  are  destitute  of  this  qualification. 

Of  all  sciences,  perhaps  no  one  is  settled  on  a  firmer  foun- 
dation than  that  of  botany ;  the  improvements  of  future  years, 
we  are  not  able  to  anticipate  ;  but  it  is  probable  that  as  dis- 
coveries and  improvements  are  made,  they  will  cluster  around 
the  principles  already  established  ;  each  taking  its  proper 
place  in  the  various  departments  now  arranged  for  the  recep- 
tion of  scientific  truths. 

The  spirit  of  our  government  is  highly  favourable  to  the 
promotion  and  dissemination  of  knowledge  ;  an^l  although 
Europe  may  boast  of  many  stars  which  irradiate  her  firmament 
of  letters,  shining  with  brilliant  lustre  amidst  the  surrounding 
darkness  of  ignorance  ;  may  we  not  justly  feel  a  national  pride 
in  that  more  general  diffusion  of  intellectual  light,  which  is  ra- 
diating from  every  part,  and  to  every  part  of  the  American 
republic  ! 


LECTURE  XLVII. 

GENERAL  VIEW  OF  NATURE. 

Organized  and  Inorganized  Bodies. — Classification  of 
Animals. 

HAVING  considered  the  vegetable  kingdom  under  its  various 
aspects,  it  may  be  proper,  before  closing  our  course  of  botan- 
ical study,  to  take  a  general  view  of  that  external  world  of 
matter,  of  which  the  part  we  have  examined,  extended  and 
diversified  as  it  is,  constitutes  but  a  very  small  portion.  The 
science  you  have  been  investigating,  with  some  others,  con- 
stitutes a  general  branch  of  knowledge,  termed  Natural  sci- 
ence. The  study  of  nature  presents  in  a  lively  and  forcible 
manner,  the  power  and  wisdom  of  the  Creator ;  and  offers  to 
the  enlightened  mind  a  never  failing  source  of  the  most  pure 

Study  of  botany  within  the  reach  of  all.— This  science  firmly  settled— Dif- 
ference between  the  state  of  science  in  Europe  and  America.— Natural  science. 


324  VIEW  OF  NATURE. 

and  refined  enjoyment.  Those  who  know  nothing  of  this 
source  of  happiness,  cannot  appreciate  its  value  ;  they  may  in- 
quire the  use  of  studying  into  the  nature  of  objects,  without  any 
reference  to  the  enjoyment  of  the  senses,  to  personal  gain,  or 
honour.  A  celebrated  naturalist*  observes  ;  "  The  rich  and 
the  great  imagine,  that  every  one  is  miserable,  and  out  of  the 
world,  who  does  not  live  as  they  do ;  but  they  are  the  persons 
who,  living  far  from  nature  and  from  God,  live  out  of  the 
world.  Misled  by  the  prejudices  of  a  faulty  education,  I  have 
pursued  a  vain  felicity  amid  the  false  glories  of  arms,  the  fa- 
vour  of  the  great,  and  sometimes  in  frivolous  and  dangerous 
pleasures.  1  have  never  been  happy  but  when  I  trusted  in 
God ;  opposed  to  THEE,  the  AUTHOR  of  all  things !  power  is 
weakness !  supported  by  THEE,  weakness  becomes  strength  ! 
When  the  rude  Northern  blasts  have  ravaged  the  earth, 
THOU  callest  forth  the  feeblest  of  winds  ;  at  the  sound  of  THY 
voice,  the  zephyr  breathes,  the  verdure  revives,  the  gentle 
cowslip  and  the  humble  violet  cover  the  bosom  of  the  bleak 
earth  with  a  mantle  of  gold  and  purple." 

To  the  pious  reflections  of  this  French  writer  we  will  add 
the  following  quotation  from  an  English  author,^  the  energies 
of  whose  rich  and  cultivated  intellect  were  devoted  to  the  cause 
of  religion  ;  who  viewed  nature  as  a  philosopher,  but  what  is 
far  better,  as  a  Christian.  Happy  indeed,  are  those  in  whom 
philosophy  and  Christianity  are  blended,  and  delightful  is  the 
intercourse  even  in  this  world  between  minds  thus  enlightened 
and  purified ! 

"  There  is  peculiar  sweetness  in  the  recollection  of  those 
hours  which  we  have  spent  with  friends  of  a  kindred  spirit, 
amidst  the  beauties  of  created  nature.  The  Christian  can 
alone  find  that  congeniality  in  associates,  who  not  only  possess 
a  lively  and  cultivated  sense  of  the  high  beauty  which  land- 
scape scenery  presents  to  the  eye,  but  who  can  also  see  crea- 
tion's God  in  every  feature  of  the  prospect.  The  painter  can 
imitate,  the  poet  describe,  and  the  tourist  talk  with  ecstacy  of 
the  sublime  and  beautiful  objects  which  constitute  the  scene 
before  him.  But  he  can  only  be  said  to  enjoy  them  aright, 
whose  talents,  taste,  and  affections  are  consecrated  to  the  glory 
of  Him  by  whom  « all  things  were  made,  and  without  whom 
was  not  any  thing  made  that  was  made.'  When  the  pencil 
that  traces  the  rich  and  animated  landscape  of  mountains, 
lakes  and  trees,  is  guided  by  a  grateful  heart  as  well  as  by  a 

*  St.  Pierre. 

t  Rev.  Legh  Richmond. 

Reflections  on  the  study  of  natural  science. 


VIEW  OF  NATURE.  325 

skilful  hand,  then  the  picture  becomes  no  less  an  acceptable 
offering  to  God,  than  it  is  a  source  of  well  directed  pleasure  to 
the  mind  of  man.  And  when  the  poet,  in  harmonious  numbers, 
makes  hill  and  dale  responsive  to  his  song,  happy  is  it  if  his 
soul  be  in  unison  with  the  harp  of  David,  and  if  he  can  call  on 
all  created  nature  to  join  in  one  universal  chorus  of  gratitude 
and  praise.  The  Christian  traveller  best  enjoys  scenes  like 
these.  In  every  wonder  he  sees  the  hand  that  made  it — in 
every  landscape,  the  beauty  that  adorns  it — in  rivers,  fields 
and  forests,  the  Providence  that  ministers  to  the  wants  of  man 
— in  every  surrounding  object  he  sees  an  emblem  of  his  own 
spiritual  condition,  himself  a  stranger  and  a  pilgrim,  journeying 
on  through  a  country  of  wonders  and  beauties  ;  alternately 
investigating,  admiring,  and  praising  the  works  of  his  Maker, 
and  anticipating  a  holy  and  happy  eternity  to  he  spent  in  the 
Paradise  of  God,  where  the  prospects  are  ever  new,  and  the 

landscapes  never  fade  from  the  sight !" 

\ 

"  O  !  for  the  expanded  mind  that  soars  on  high, 
Ranging  afar  with  Meditation's  eye  ! 
That  climbs  the  heights  of  yonder  starry  road, 
Rising  through  nature  up  to  nature's  God. 

O  !  for  a  soul  to  trace  a  Saviour's  power, 

In  each  sweet  form  that  decks  the  blooming  flower  : 

And  as  we  wander  such  fair  scenes  among, 

To  make  the  Rose  of  Sharon  all  our  song." 

Naturalists,  to  the  great  discredit  of  science,  have  formerly 
shewn  an  unhappy  tendency  to  scepticism ;  enabled  to  compre- 
hend some  of  the  great  operations  of  nature,  they  presumed  to 
set  up  their  own  reason  against  the  revelation  of  God,  and  im- 
piously refused  to  believe  any  thing  which  could  not  be  ex- 
plained according  to  the  principles  of  human  science.  Search- 
ing into  the  elements  which  compose  the  human  body ;  and 
observing  the  dispersion  of  the  same,  and  their  incorporation 
into  other  substances,  they  affirmed  that  it  was  "  a  thing  im- 
possible for  God  to  raise  the  dead."  Well  might  we,  in  ad- 
dressing such  a  philosopher,  say,  with  the  Apostle,  "  Thou 
fool !"  Cannot  He  who  formed  all  things  of  nothing,  reani- 
mate the  sleeping  dust,  and  recal  the  spirit  to  its  own  body  ? 
Happily  this  melancholy  perversion  of  human  learning  seems 
to  have  passed  away,  and  we  now  see  many  of  the  most  en- 
lightened investigators  of  the  principles  of  science  among  the 
most  humble  disciples  of  Jesus.* 

*  In  the  character  of  Dr.  Mason  Good,  as  exhibited  in  his  biography,  writ- 
ten by  Olinthus  Gregory,  we  find  this  union  of  science  with  deep  and  fervent 
piety  most  happily  exemplified. 

Naturalists  formerly  inclined  to  scepticism. 

28 


326  HEAVENLY  BODIES. 

By  the  word  Nature,  derived  from  a  term  signifying  lorn, 
or  produced,  in  a  general  sense  we  mean  all  the  works  of  God. 
Using  a  figure  of  speech  called  Metonomy,  we  often  put  the 
effect  for  the  cause  ;  as,  when  we  speak  of  the  "  works  of  na- 
ture," meaning  what  the  Almighty  has  brought  forth,  or  we 
often  mean  by  nature  the  Deity  himself:  as  when  we  say  that 
"  nature  produces  plants  and  animals." 

With  respect  to  the  heavenly  bodies,  which  manifest  them- 
selves to  us  with  so  much  magnificence,  we  know  them  to  be 
matter,  because  we  observe  them  to  be  subject  to  the  laws  which 
govern  matter  ;  and  we  have  been  able,  by  the  discoveries  of 
astronomers,  to  understand  their  various  revolutions :  we  have 
in  general,  clearer  ideas  of  their  motions  than  even  of  our  own 
planet ;  it  is  more  easy  for  us  to  imagine  them  as  moving,  than 
that  our  firm  earth  is  whirling  with  inconceivable  velocity. 
Were  it  possible  for  us  to  conceive  the  quantity  of  matter  which 
even  one  world  as  large  as"  our  sun  contains,  the  thought  would 
be  overwhelming ;  and  of  all  the  worlds  which  we  behold  at 
one  view  in  a  serene  night,  what  finite  being  could  imagine 
their  united  extent  ?  They  are  suspended  over  our  heads,  each 
one  pursuing  its  destined  course :  why  do  we  not  fear  that  some 
one  may  be  precipitated  upon  our  little  world,  and  crush'  it  to 
atoms  ?  It  is  because  we  know  that  they  are  all  upheld  by  that 
Power  which  "created  the  heavens  and  the  earth,"  ,and  who 
governs  the  universe  by  regular  laws.  This  universe  is  infinite 
as  the  God  who  formed  it ;  our  sun,  with  all  its  systems,  is  but 
a  point  lost  in  immensity.  Astronomers  have  proved  that  the 
fixed  stars  are  at  such  an  immense  distance  from  us,  that  moving 
at  the  rate  of  500  miles  an  hour,  we  should  not  reach  the  near- 
est of  them  in  700,000  years,  a  distance  of  more  than  200,000 
times  greater  than  that  of  the  sun  from  the  earth.  The  same 
space  probably  separates  all  the  fixed  stars.  Around  those 
stars  revolve  millions  of  opaque  globes,  as  our  earth  revolves 
around  the  sun,  which  is  also  one  of  the  fixed  stars.  The 
satellites  describe  around  the  primary  planets  almost  circular 
orbits ;  they  are  carried  with  their  primaries  around  the  sun  in 
their  annual  motion  ;  the  sun  himself,  with  all  his  numerous 
train  of  primary  planets,  each  with  its  satellites,  revolves 
around  the  common  centre  of  gravity  of  the  fixed  stars,  of 
which  himself  constitutes  a  part  ;  and  these  are  supposed  to 
revolve  around  the  centre  of  the  universe.  Here  may  be  the 
throne  of  the  Almighty  Creator  and  Director  of  all  these  stu- 
pendous objects. 

Yet  we  need  not  fear  that  we  shall  be  forgotten  in  the  im- 
mensity of  creation  ;  the  same  Being  who  created  and  rules 

Definition  of  Nature— The  heavenly  bodies. 


VIEW  OF  NATURE.  327 

the  host  of  heaven,  made  the  little  moss  and  the  lilies  of  the 
field,  which  are  so  beautifully  arrayed.  If  God  condescends 
to  care  for  them,  he  will  not  neglect  us  who  are  made  in  his 
own  image,  and  destined  to  an  immortal  existence. 

Turning  our  thoughts  from  the  heavenly  host  to  our  own 
little  globe,  and  considering  the  matter  which  exists  upon  it, 
we  find  two  great  classes  of  substances  :  1st,  inorganized,  and 
2d,  organized. 

The  1st  class  of  substances,  viz  :  such  as  are  inorganized, 
comprehends  all  matter  destitute  of  a  living  principle  ;  such  as 
fluids,  gases,  and  minerals.  The  particles  which  compose 
them  are  entirely  subject  to  chemical  and  mechanical  laws. 

The  2d  class,  viz  :  organized  substances,  includes  animals 
and  vegetables  ;  the  particles  constituting  them  are  in  a  per- 
petual state  of  motion.  They  are  supported  by  air  and  food, 
endowed  with  life,  and  subject  to  death  ;  the  active  power  or 
life  which  operates  in  them  we  call  the  vital  principle.  This 
vital  principle  eludes  the  researches  of  man  ;  all  that  we  know 
of  it  is  in  its  effects,  enabling  the  organized  body  to  resist  pu- 
trefaction, and,  to  a  certain  degree,  to  maintain  a  temperature 
different  from  surrounding  bodies.  Deprived  of  this  vital  prin- 
ciple,.both  animals  and  vegetables  become  subject  to  chemical 
decomposition  ;  their  solid  parts  are  dissolved,  and  they  return 
to  the  earth  from  whence  they  were  taken. 

If  you  dig  up  a  stone,  and  remove  it  from  one  place  to 
another,  it  will  suffer  no  alteration ;  if  you  dig  a  plant  it  will 
wither  and  die.  If  you  break  a  mineral  to  pieces,  every 
fragment  will  be  a  perfect  specimen  of  its  kind ;  it  will  only 
be  altered  in  shape  and  size ;  but  if  you  tear  off  a  branch 
from  a  plant,  or  if  a  limb  is  taken  from  an  animal,  they  will 
both  immediately  begin  to  decay ;  the  vital  principle  being 
extinguished,  putrefaction  and  dissolution  follow. 

We  should  never  have  been  able  to  predict,  from  the  ap- 
pearances of  the  stone,  the  plant,  and  animal,  that  they  were 
thus  differently  constituted ;  by  observations  we  find,  that  the 
production  and  mode  of  growth,  has  been  under  different 
circumstances.  We  find  that  the  stone  has  grown  by  a  grad- 
ual accumulation  of  particles,  independent  of  each  other,  and 
can  only  be  destroyed  by  chemical  or  mechanical  force  ;  the 
plant  and  animal,  have  on  the  contrary,  grown  by  nourish- 
ment, been  possessed  of  parts  mutually  dependent,  and  con- 
tributing to  the  existence  of  each  other. 

So  far,  our  observation  teaches  us  the  distinction  between 
organized  and  inorganized  beings;  though  it  does  not  teach 

Substances  divided  into  two  classes — 1st  class  of  substances — 2d  class  of 
substances— Vital  principle — Difference  between  a  stone  and  a  plant. 


328 


VIEW  OF  NATURE. 


us  in  what  this  internal  power,  or  life  consists.  God  permits 
us  to  know  much,  in  order  to  lead  us  to  industry  in  the  attain- 
ment of  knowledge  ;  but  he  places  boundaries  beyond  which 
we  may  not  pass,  that  we  may  be  humble. 

Comparison  of  the  Organic  and  Inorganic  Kingdoms. 


INORGANIC    BODIES. 


ORGANIC    BODIES. 


Structure. 


Their  parts  always  analo- 
gous to,  and  not  depending  on 
each  other ;  thus  a  fragment 
of  stone,  is  as  much  a  stone 
as  the  block  or  rock  to  which 
it  belonged. 


Their  parts  are  mutually 
dependent;  thus  a  stetn,  leaf, 
flower,  &c.  do  not  constitute 
a  vegetable  being,  except  as 
they  are  united ;  it  is  the  same 
with  the  different  parts  of  an 
animal. 


Origin. 


Molecular  attraction,  mod- 
ified by  time  and  space,  or 
by  the  art  of  man  (as  in 
chemistry) ;  they  are  made. 


Owe  their  existence  to  be- 
ings similar  to  themselves, 
produced  either  from  eggs,  or 
brought  into  existence  in  a 
living  state  ;  they  are  hatched 
or  born. 


Developement. 


They  grow  by  the  addition 
of  new  particles;  they  are 
hence  said  to  increase  by 
juxtaposition  or  accretion. 


They  develope  by  assimila- 
ting to  their  nature,  or  con- 
verting to  their  sustenance, 
foreign  substances  which  they 
absorb,  or  receive  internally  ; 
they  increase  by  nourishment. 

Termination. 


They  have  a  determinate 
form,  and  duration  ;  their  ex- 
istence  terminates  either  by 
old  age,  or  disease ;  they  die. 


They  are  limited  to  no  par- 
ticular form  (except  in  the 
case  of  crystals),  they  have 
no  life,  and  are  not  subject  to 
death ;  they  decompose. 

Having  considered  the  distinction  between  inorganic  and 
organic  substances,  we  will  proceed  to  a  division  which  may 

Structure  of  inorganic  bodies  — Of  organic  bodies— Origin  of  inorganic 
bodies — Of  organic  bodies — Developement  of  inorganic  bodies — Of  organic 
bodies — Termination  of  inorganic  bodies — Of  organic  bodies. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  ANIMALS.  329 

be  more  familiar  to  you  ;  that  by  which  the  matter  upon  our 
globe  is  ranged  under  three  kingdoms ;  the  ANIMAL,  VEGE- 
TABLE, and  MINERAL. 

We  find  it  somewhat  difficult  to  draw  a  line  of  distinction 
between  the  different  kinds  of  organized  beings,  viz.  animals 
and  vegetables  ;  the  lines  of  distinction  often  seem  to  fade  so 
gradually,  that  we  cannot  well  decide  where  the  animal 
ends,  and  the  vegetable  begins. 

This  difficulty  may  seem  at  first  somewhat  strange,  as  you 
may  perhaps  never  have  been  at  a  loss  to  tell  an  animal  from 
a  vegetable  ;  you  would  certainly  know  how  to  distinguish 
between  a  nightingale  and  a  rose,  or  between  an  ox  and  an 
oak  ;  but  these  are  animals  and  vegetables  in  a  comparatively 
perfect  state. 

The  animal  you  see  has  the  power  to  move  about,  to  seek 
the  nourishment  most  agreeable  ;  you  perceive  it  uttering 
audible  sounds,  possessing  sensation  and  apparent  conscious, 
ness.  The  plant  on  the  contrary  is  confined  to  a  particular 
spot,  having  no  other  nourishment  than  substances  which  them- 
selves come  in  contact  with  it ;  exhibiting  no  consciousness, 
nor  to  common  observation  any  sensation.  It  is  only,  when 
we  examine  with  close  attention,  the  various  phenomena  in  the 
vegetable  and  animal  kingdoms,  that  we  learn  to  doubt,  as  to 
the  exact  boundaries  by  which  they  are  separated. 

The  division  of  nature  into  three  kingdoms,  animal,  vegeta- 
ble and  mineral,  is  very  ancient,  and  appears  at  first  to  be 
clear  and  precise. 

Minerals  destitute  of  life  increase  by  the  accumulation  of 
new  particles. 

Vegetables  grow,  produce  seeds  which  contain  the  elements 
of  future  plants  like  themselves,  and  then  die. 

Animals  unite  to  the  properties  of  vegetables,  the  feeling  of 
their  own  existence  ;  or  as  Linnaaus  has  said,  "  Stones  grow, 
vegetables  grow  and  live,  animals  grow,  live,  and  feel."  Al- 
though this  simple  view  of  the  works  of  creation  is  pleasing, 
it  is  not  satisfactory  ;  because  we  are  not  able  to  decide  where 
in  the  vast  series  of  organized  beings,  sensation  ceases. 

That  you  may  the  better  understand  what  is  meant  by  the 
gradations  in  animal  life,  we  will  present'  you  with  a  sketch  of 
the  classification  of  animals.  The  study  of  this  department 
of  nature  you  have  already  been  told  is  termed  Zoology. 

A  very  general  and  simple  classification  of  animals  is  as 
follows  : — 

Three  kingdoms  of  nature—  Distinction  between  the  different  kinds  of  or- 
ganized beings— Minerals— Vegetables — Animals — Zoology — Division  of  ani- 
mals into  two  classes. 

28* 


330  VIEW  OF    NATURE. 

"  Vertebral,  animals  fiaving  backbones. 
Avertebral,  animals  destitute  of  backbones. 
VERTEBRAL  animals  are  divided  into, 

1.  Quadrupeds.     The  science   of  which  has   no   popular 
name.     It  includes  four-footed  animals ;  as  ox,  dog,  mouse. 

2.  Birds.     The  science  of  which  is  called  ornithology.     It 
includes  the  feathered  tribe  ;  as  pigeon,  goose,  wren. 

3.  Amphibious  Animals.     The  science  of  which  is  called 
amphibiology.     It  includes  those  cold-blooded  animals  which 
are  capable  of  living  on  dry  land,  or  in  the  water ;  as  tortoise, 
lizard,  serpent,  frog. 

4.  Fishes.     The  science  of  which  is  called  itchthyology.     It 
includes  all  aquatic  animals  which  have  gills  and  fins ;  as 
shad,  trout,  sturgeon,  eel. 

AVERTEBRAL  animals  are  divided  into, 

5.  Insects.     The  science  of  which  is  called  entomology.     It 
includes  all  animals  with  jointed  bodies,  which  have  jointed 
limbs  ;  as  flies,  spiders,  lobsters. 

6.  Vermes.     The  science  of  which  is  called  herminthology. 
It  includes  all  soft  animals  of  the  avertebral  division,  which 
have  no  jointed  limbs,  with  or  without  hard  coverings ;  as 
angle  worms,  snails,  oysters,  polypi,  and  infusory  animals."* 

The  system  of  Zoology  most  approved,  is  the  one  taught  by 
Linnaeus,  with  some  improvements  made  by  the  great  French 
naturalist,  Cuvier ;  according  to  this  mode  of  classification, 
the  animal  kingdom  is  divided  into  four  grand  divisions,  viz : — 

VERTEBRAL,  MOLLUSCOUS,  ARTICULATED,  and  RADIATED. 
These  are  subdivided  into  classes  and  orders. 

First  Grand  Division — Vertebral  Animals. 

CLASS  i.  Mammalia,  or  such  as  at  first  are  nourished  by 
milk.  This  class  have  lungs,  and  peculiar  organs  for  imbibing 
their  food,  during  their  first  stage  of  existence. 

The  First  Order  is  called  Bi-mani  (from  bis  two,  mani 
hands) ;  this  order  includes  man  only  ;  we  find  here  no  generic 
or  specific  differences,  but  the  following  varieties. 

1st.  Caucasian  race,  anciently  inhabiting  the  country  about 
the  Caspian  and  Black  Seas,  from  whom  we  are  descended. 

2d.  The  Mongolian,  the  ancient  inhabitants  about  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  from  whom  the  Chinese  are  descended. 

3d.  The  Ethiopian,  or  Negro  race. 

The  second  order  contains  the  quadru-mani,  from  quatuor 

*  Eaton's  Zoology. 

How  many  classes  of  Vertebral  animals  ? — How  are  Avertebral  animals  di- 
vided ?— Cuvier' s  four  grand  divisions — 1st  class  of  vertebral  animals — Order 
bi-mani— Varieties  in  this  order— Order  quadru-mani. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  ANIMALS.  331 

four,  and  mani  hands.  These  have  thumbs,  or  toes,  separate, 
on  each  of  the  four  feet.  We  here  find  Orang-outang  (some- 
times called  the  wild-man),  and  the  Monkey. 

The  Third  Order  contains  Carnivorous  animals,  or  flesh- 
feedersj  having  no  separate  thumbs,  or  great  toes  without 
nails  ;  as  the  Dog  and  Cat.  i 

The  Fourth  Order  contains  the  Gnawers,  having  no  canine 
teeth  (those  which  are  called  eye-teeth),  feeding  almost  wholly 
on  vegetable  substances  ;  as  the  Rat  and  Squirrel. 

The  Fifth  Order  is  Edentata,  or  animals  wanting  teeth ;  as 
the  Sloth  and  Armadillo. 

The  Sixth  Order,  Pachy  derma,  thick  skin  animals  with 
hoofs ;  as  the  Elephant,  Horse  and  Hog. 

The  Seventh  Order  contains  the  Ruminating  animals,  such 
as  chew  the  cud,  having  front  teeth  (incisors)  below  only,  and 
feet  with  hoofs  cloven,  or  divided  ;  as  the  Ox,  Sheep  and  Camel. 

The  Eighth  Order,  Cete,  contains  aquatic  animals  (such  as 
live  in  water),  having  no  kind  of  feet,  or  whose  feet  are  fin- 
like-limbs  ;  as  the  Whale  and  Dolphin. 

We  have  enumerated  all  the  orders  of  the  class  Mammalia, 
as  it  is  the  one  in  which  man  is  placed ;  we  shall  now  notice 
the  remaining  classes  of  animals,  without  going  into  so  minute 
a  detail  of  their  orders. 

CLASS  n,  Contains  Birds  (Aves),  which  are  distinguished  by 
having  the  body  covered  with  feathers  and  down,  long  naked 
jaws,  two  wings  formed  for  flight,  and  bi-ped  (from  bis,  two, 
and  pedes,  feet).  The  orders  in  this  class,  are  chiefly  dis- 
tinguished from  each  other  by  the  peculiar  make  of  the  bill 
and  feet. 

CLASS  in?  Amphibia,  contains  amphibious  animals,  includ- 
ing what  are  commonly  called  reptiles.  It  is  divided  into  four 
orders  : 

1st.  With  shells  over  their  back,  and  four  feet ;  as  the  tor- 
toise and  turtle. 

2d.  Covered  with  scales,  and  having  four  feet ;  as  the  cro- 
codile and  lizard. 

3d.  Body  naked,  destitute  of  feet ;  as  serpents  and  snakes. 

4th.  The  body  naked,  and  having  two,  or  four  feet ;  as  the 
frog  and  toad. 

CLASS  iv,  Contains  Fishes  (Pisces),  natives  of  the  water, 
unable  to  exist  for  any  length  of  time  out  of  it ;  swift  in  their 
motions,  and  voracious  in  their  appetites ;  breathing  by  means 
of  gills,  which  are  generally  united  in  a  long  arch  ;  swimming 
by  means  of  radiate  fins,  and  mostly  covered  with  scales. 

Third  order — Fourth  order -Fifth  order — Sixth  order — Seventh  Order — 
Eighth  order— Class  2d— Class  3d— Class  4th. 


332  VIEW  OF  NATURE. 

Second  Grand  Division. 

CLASS  v,  Mollusca,  bodies  soft,  without  bones,  but  their 
muscles  attached  to  a  skin  which  forms  a  calcareous  covering 
called  a  shell,  and  is,  in  many  cases,  produced  from  their  skin. 
These  animals  possess  no  organs  of  sense  but  those  of  taste 
and  sight,  and  these  are  often  wanting  ;  the  nautilus  and  cut- 
tie  fish  are  of  the  highest  order  of  Molluscous  animals. 

One  order  contains  animals  without  heads,  having  a  shell 
usually  of  two  pieces ;  these  are  called  bi'valves ;  as  the  oys- 
ter, clam,  and  snail. 

Third  Grand  Division. 

We  proceed  next  to  those  animals  called  Articulated;  these 
have  jointed  trunks,  and  mostly  jointed  limbs.  They  possess 
the  faculty  of  locomotion,  or  changing  place ;  some  have  feet, 
and  others  are  destitute  of  them  ;  the  latter  move  by  trailing 
along  their  bodies. 

CLASS  vi,  Annelida,  contains  such  animals  as  have  red 
blood,  without  a  bony  skeleton ;  bodies  soft  and  long,  the  cov- 
ering divided  into  transverse  rings  ;  they  live  mostly  in  water ; 
some  of  them  secrete  calcareous  matter  which  forms  a  hard 
covering,  or  shell ;  as  the  earth  or  angle  worm,  and  leech. 

CLASS  vn,  Crustacea,  contains  animals  without  blood,  with 
jointed  limbs  fastened  to  a  calcareous  crust ;  they  breathe  by 
a  kind  of  gills. 

CLASS  vni,  Archnida,  contains  spider-like  animals  without 
blood,  jointed  limbs,  without  horns ;  they  breathe  by  little  open- 
ings, which  lead  to  organs  resembling  lungs,  or  by  little  pipes 
distributed  over  the  whole  body  ;  these  do  not  pass  through 
any  important  change  of  state,  as  insects  do ;  they  have  mostly 
six  or  eight  eyes,  and  eight  feet,  and  feed  chiefly  on  living  ani- 
mals ;  examples  of  this  class  are  the  spider  and  scorpion. 

CLASS  ix,  Insecta,  or  insects,  without  blood,  having  jointed 
limbs  and  horns ;  they  breathe  by  two  pipes,  running  parallel 
to  each  other,  through  the  whole  body  ;  they  have  two  horns  ; 
they  are  mostly  winged,  having  one  or  two  pairs  ;  a  few  are 
without  wings  ;  mostly  with  six  feet.  They  possess  all  the 
senses  which  belong  to  any  class  of  animals,  except  that  of 
hearing. 

The  winged  insects  pass  through  several  changes  or  'meta- 
morphoses. The  Butterfly  is  first  an  egg;  this  when  hatched 
is  long  and  cylindrical,  and  divided  into  numerous  rings,  hav- 
ing many  short  legs,  jaws,  and  several  small  eyes ;  this  is  the 

Second  grand  division,  what  class  does  it  contain  ? — What  order  in  this 
class  is  mentioned  ? — Articulated  animals — Class  6th—  Class  7th — Class  8th — 
Class  9th — Metamorphoses  of  insects. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  ANIMALS.  333 

larva,  or  caterpillar.  At  length  it  casts  off  its  skin  and  appears 
in  another  form  without  limbs.  It  neither  takes  nourishment, 
moves,  nor  gives  any  signs  of  life ;  this  is  called  chrys'alis. 
In  process  of  time,  by  examining  it  closely,  the  imperfect  form 
of  the  butterfly  may  be  seen  through  the  envelope  ;  this,  it 
soon  bursts,  and  a  perfect  butterfly  appears.  When  about  to 
pass  into  the  chrys'alis  state,  of-  which  they  appear  to  have 
warning,  the  insect  selects  some  place  where  it  may  repose 
safely  during  its  temporary  death.*  The  silk  worm  spins  its 
silken  web  to  wrap  itself  in,  and  this  web  is  that  from  which 
all  our  silks  are  made. 

Fourth  Grand  Division. — Radiated  Animals. 
Fig.  133. 


CLASS  x.  Zo'ophites,  or  animal  plants.  Here  we  find  the 
lowest  beings  in  the  animal  kingdom.  Some  of  the  orders  of 
this  class  contain  animals  which  have  neither  -heart,  brains, 
nerves,  nor  any  apparent  means  of  breathing.  These  are 
sometimes  called  animal  plants  ;  many  of  them,  as  the  corals, 
are  fixed  to  rocks,  and  never  change  place.  The  term  coral 
includes  under  it  many  species  ;  the  red  coral  used  for  orna- 
ments, is  the  most  beautiful.  The  substance  of  coral,  when 
subjected  to  chemical  analysis,  is  found  to  consist  chiefly  of 
carbonate  of  lime  ;  the  hard  crust  which  envelopes  the  animal 
substance,  is  an  excretion  formed  by  it  in  the  same  way  as  the 

*  May  not  this  be  considered  as  a  lesson  to  man  to  anticipate  and  provide  for 
the  change  in  his  existence,  which  his  bodily  infirmities,  and  his  daily  observa- 
tion, teach  him  is  to  be  his  own  lot  ? 

Class  10th— Description  of  Zoophites— Corals. 


334  VIEW  OF  NATURE. 

shells  of  the  oyster  and  lobster  are  produced,  or  as  nails  grow 
upon  the  fingers  and  toes  of  the  human  body.  The  quantity 
of  this  carbonate  of  lime  elaborated  by  the  little  coral  animal 
is  truly  wonderful ;  islands  are  formed,  and  harbours  blocked 
up  by  it.  Fig.  133,  a,  represents  a  branching  coral ;  the  dots 
show  the  apertures  by  which  the  animal  receives  its  nourish- 
ment.  Some  of  the  zoophites  are  fixed  by  a  kind  of  root,  to 
the  bottom  of  the  sea  ;  some,  as  the  sea-nettle,  which  appears 
like  the  segment  of  a  circle,  are  carried  about  by  the  motion 
of  the  waters,  without  any  voluntary  motion,  as,  are  also  the 
sea-daisy,  sea-marygold,  and  the  sea-carnation,  so  named  from 
an  apparent  resemblance  to  those  plants.  We  find  here  the 
sea-fan,  the  sea-pen,  and  the  madrepore,  the  latter  of  which 
are  often  thrown  together  in  vast  quantities. 

The  sponge  also  belongs  to  this  class  of  strange  animal  sub- 
stances ;  it  consists  of  a  fibrous  mass,  containing  a  jelly-like  sub- 
stance, which,  when  touched,  discovers  a  slight  sensation,  the 
only  sign  of  life  manifested  by  it.  There  are  many  species  of 
sponge  ;  those  most  valued  in  the  arts  are  found  in  the  Medi- 
terranean sea  and  Indian  ocean.  Some  grow  upon  rocks,  and 
are  found  covering  the  interior  of  submarine  caves.  The 
Spongia  parasitica  is  seen  growing  upon  the  back  and  legs  of 
a  species  of  crab  ;  sometimes  as  many  as  forty  individual 
sponges  extend  themselves  over  the  crab,  impeding  the  motion 
of  its  joints,  spreading  like  a  cloak  over  its  back,  or  forming 
for  its  head  grotesque  and  towering  ornaments,  from  which 
the  poor  crab  vainly  attempts  to  disencumber  itself. 

Some  species  of  the  sponge  grow  to  a  very  large  size  ;  one 
has  been  found  in  the  East  Indies  in  the  form  of  a  cup,  capable 
of  containing  ten  gallons  of  water.  The  fibrous  part  of  the 
sponge  is  the  skeleton  of  the  animal ;  the  large  apertures  (see 
Fig.  133,  &,)  serve  to  carry  out  fluids  from  within  ;  while  the 
water  by  which  the  animal  is  nourished,  is  imbibed  by  minute 
pores  ;  this  continual  circulation  of  water  is  one  of  the  most 
important  functions  of  the  living  sponge. 

These  animals  resemble  plants  in  their  manner  of  producing 
others  ;  they  form  a  species  of  germ,  like  the  bud  growing 
upon  the  stalk  ;  this  foils  off  from  the  stem,  and  becomes  a  per- 
fect animal.  If  a  part  of  one  of  those  animals  is  separated 
from  the  rest,  it  will  itself  be  as  perfect  a  living  animal  as 
was  the  whole  before.  A  polypus  can  be  divided  into  as 
many  animals  as  it  contains  atoms  ;  some  of  this  order  are  very 
properly  called  hydras  (many  headjed).  Besides  these,  there 
is  another  order  of  animal  substances,  infusoria,  which  appear 

Various  kinds  of  zoophites— Sponge — manner  in  which  these  animals  are 
reproduced. 


COMPARISON  BETWEEN  ANIMALS  AND  PLANTS.       335 

like  a  homogeneous  mass,  having  no  appearance  of  any  limbs 
whatever  ;  these  are  either  angular,  oval,  or  globular. 


LECTURE   XLVIII. 

Man  at  the  Jiead  of  the  Kingdoms  of  Nature. — Comparison 
between  Animals  and  Plants. — Conclusion. 

IN  our  last  lecture,  after  a  glance  upward  to  the  heavenly 
bodies,  we  returned  to  our  globe,  and  considered  its  various 
substances ;  here  we  found  two  classes  of  bodies,  inorganized 
and  organized  substances  ;  the  former  including  minerals,  the 
latter  embracing  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms.  We 
then  took  a  brief  view  of  the  animal  creation. 

At  the  head  6f  the  animal  kingdom,  we  found  man,  suffi- 
ciently resembling  brute  animals  in  his  material  frame,  to  con- 
stitute part  of  an  extensive  class,  embracing  the  ape,  elephant, 
and  dog  ;  yet  between  the  lowest  degree  of  intelligence  in  the 
human  race,  and  the  highest  faculties  of  brutes,  there  is  a  line 
of  distinction  marked  by  the  hand  of  the  Almighty,  in  charac- 
ters too  obvious  for  doubt.  God  said,  "  let  us  make  man  in 
our  own  image,  and  he  breathed  into  him  the  breath  of  life, 
and  man  became  a  living  soul." 

Some  writers  have  attempted  to  show  that  man  differs  only 
from  the  inferior  order  of  animals  in  possessing  a  greater  va- 
riety of  instincts.  But  however  wonderful  may  appear  the 
instinctive  perceptions  of  brutes,  they  are  destitute  of  reason  ; 
and  incapable  of  being  the  subjects  of  moral  government ;  we' 
must,  therefore,  both  from  our  own  observation  and  the  decla- 
rations of  scripture,  infer,  that  the  faculties  of  man  differ,  not 
in  degree  only,  but  distinctly  in  their  nature,  from  those  of  all 
other  beings  upon  our  globe. 

"  Man  (says  Buffon),  by  his  form  and  the  perfection  of  his 
organs,  and  as  the  only  being  on  earth  endowed  with  reason, 
seems  properly  placed  at  the  head  of  the  kingdoms  of  nature. 
All  in  him  announces  the  lord  of  the  earth  ;  his  form  marks 
his  superiority  over  all  living  beings  ;  he  stands  erect,  in  the 
attitude  of  command,  he  can  gaze*  upon  the  heavens ;  on  his 
face  is  imprinted  the  character  of  dignity ;  the  image  of  his 
soul  is  painted  upon  his  features,  and  the  excellence  of  his  na- 
ture penetrates  through  his  material  organs,  and  animates  the 
expression  ofhis  countenance." 

Man  at  the  head  of  the  animal  kingdom — How  resembling  inferior  animals 
—How  differing  from  them— Buffon's  description  of  man. 


336  VIEW  OF  NATURE. 

In  the  orders  of  animals  next  to  man,  we  find  the  senses  of 
sight,  touch,  taste  and  smell  equally  perfect  as  those  possessed 
by  him,  and  in  some  cases,  they  are  even  more  acute  ;  but  as 
we  proceed  downwards  through  the  gradations  of  animal  exist- 
ence, we  perceive  the  number  and  acuteness  of  the  senses  to 
diminish — we  find  some  beings  with  but  four  senses,  some  with 
three,  others  with  two,  and  lastly,  in  the  Zoophites,  we  find 
only  the  sense  of  touch,  and  that  so  faintly  exhibited  as  almost 
to  lead  us  to  doubt  its  existence. 

Let  us,  after  these  observations,  return  to  the  distinction 
between  animals  and  vegetables.  You  now  perceive  that  al- 
though you  would  find  no  difficulty  with  regard  to  a  nightin- 
gale and  a  rose,  to  discover  to  which  of  the  kingdoms  of  nature 
they  belong  ;  yet  with  respect  to  a  sponge  or  coral,  and  a 
mushroom  or  a  lichen,  it  would  be  somewhat  difficult,  without 
a  previous  knowledge  of  their  classification,  to  say  which  is 
called  animal,  and  which  vegetable,  or  to  give  the  distinctions 
between  them.  We  have  seen  among  the  zoophites,  that  the 
polypus  may  be  increased  by  cutting  shoots  and  engrafting 
them  upon  other  animals,  in  the  same  manner  as  vegetables 
may  be  increased. 

With  respect  to  sensation,  some  plants  discover  this,  appa- 
rently even  in  a  greater  degree  than  some  of  the  last  orders  of 
animals ;  the  sensitive  plant  shrinks  from  the  touch  ;  the  Dio- 
nea  suddenly  closes  its  leaves  upon  the  insect  which  touches 
them ;  the  leaves  of  plants  follow  the  direction  of  light,  in 
order  to  present  their  upper  surfaces  to  its  influence  ;  this  you 
can  observe  in  flower  pots  placed  by  a  window.  The  seed  of 
a  plant,  in  whatever  situation  it  may  be  placed  in  the  earth, 
always  sends  its  root  downwards,  and  its  stem  upwards ;  in 
these  cases,  does  there  not  seem  as  much  appearance  of  sensa- 
tion and  instinct,  and  even  more  than  in  the  lower  orders  of 
animals  ? 

We  find  then,  that  the  possession,  or  want  of  instinct,  does 
not  constitute  a  mark  of  distinction  between  animals  and 
plants.  , 

Some  have  attempted  to  draw  a  line  of  distinction,  by  con- 
sidering, that  locomotion,  or  the  power  of  changing  place,  be- 
longs to  animals  only  ;  but  this  criterion  seems  to  fail,  since  we 
find  animals  fixed  io  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  or  growing  upon 
rocks,  and  plants  moving  upon  the  surface  of  the  water. 

Another  mark  of  distinction  has  been  given,  in  the  supposed 
presence  of  nitrogen  in  animals,  detected  by  a  peculiar  odour 

Senses  of  the  orders  of  animals  inferior  to  man — Sensation  seems  to  be  pos- 
sessed by  some  plants Instinct  not  peculiar  to  animals Locomotion 

Nitrogen. 


COMPARISON  BETWEEN  ANIMALS  AND  PLANTS.        337 

when  animal  substances  are  burning,  similar  to  what  we  per- 
ceive in  the  combustion  of  bones ;  but  nitrogen  having  been 
discovered  in  some  vegetables,  this  proof  is  no  longer  consider- 
ed infallible. 

It  appears  then  from  a  comparison  between .  animals  and 
vegetables,  that  these  beings  are  closely  connected  by  the 
essential  characters  of  organization ;  that  it  seems  impossible 
to  distinguish  them  by  any  trait  that  belongs  exclusively  to 
either ;  that  the  connexion  between  them  appears  the  most 
striking  in  the  least  perfect  species  of  both  kingdoms ;  and  that 
as  we  recede  from  this  point,  the  differences  become  more  nu- 
merous and  more  marked. 

We  may  illustrate  this  view,  by  imagining  two  ascending 
chains,  rising  from  one  common  point,  each  side  of  the  chain 
becoming  more  and  more  unlike  in  proportion  to  the  interven- 
ing distance  from  the  centre.  From  this  same  central  point, 
also  proceeds  the  chain  of  inorganized  substances  ;  some  im- 
perfect animals  resembling  plants  in  their  outward  form,  some, 
both  of  animals  and  plants,  resembling  minerals  in  their  hard 
and  calcareous  coverings  and  shapeless  forms. 

Having  thus  learned  Jihe  almost  imperceptible  gradations, 
by  which  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms  are  blended,  we 
must,  in  stating  the  important  differences  which  exist  between 
animals  and  plants,  consider  the  imperfect  species  of  both 
kinds,  as  exceptions  to  any  general  rule,  and  confine  ourselves 
to  perfect  animals  and  plants. 

1st.  Plants  differ  from  animals  with  respect  to  the  elements 
which  compose  them ;  carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  form  the 
base  of  vegetable  substances ;  animals  exhibit  the  same  elements 
with  this  i?nportant  distinction,  that  carbon  prevails  in  plants, 
and  nitrogen  in  animals. 

2d.  They  differ  in  their  food;  plants  are  nourished  with  in- 
organized  matter,  absorbed  with  water,  the  various  substances 
which  this  liquid  holds  in  solution ;  animals  are  mostly  nourished 
either  by  vegetables  or  other  animals. 

3d.  Plants  throw  off  oxygen  gas,  and  inhale  carbonic  acid ; 
animals  in  respiration  inhale  oxygen  gas,  and  throw  off  carbonic 
acid. 

4th.  Although  plants  and  animals  both  possess  a  principle  of 
life,  it  is  in  the  one  case  much  more  limited  than  in  the  other ;  ex- 
hibiting itself  in  plants  by  a  feeble  power  of  contraction  or  irri- 
tability ;  in  animals  appearing  in  sensation,  muscular  movement 
and  voluntary  motion. 

We  see  then,  many  important  differences  between  perfect 

Result  of  the  comparison  between  animals  and  vegetables — Chains  of  beings 
proceeding  from  one  point — Differences  between  animals  and  plants. 
29 


338  VIEW  OF  NATURE. 

animals  and  perfect  plants.  We  have,  in  numerous  instances, 
pointed  out  striking  analogies  between  the  two  great  divisions 
of  organized  bodies ;  this  subject  might  be  greatly  enlarged, 
but  every  human  effort  has  its  limitation  ;  and  we  have  already, 
amid  the  multitude  of  interesting  facts  arid  reflections  present- 
ed by  the  vegetable  creation,  far  exceeded  the  bounds  originally 
prescribed.  A  few  remarks  upon  the  inorganized  matter  con- 
nected with  our  globe,  must  close  our  present  course. 

Inorganic  bodies  form  the  solid  base  of  the  globe.  Minerals 
are  spread  upon  the  face  of  the  earth  or  lie  buried  beneath  its 
surface.  They  form  vast  masses  of  rocks,  chains  of  moun- 
tains, and  the  ground  upon  which  we  tread.  The  Water  oc- 
cupies a  still  greater  surface  of  the  earth  than  the  land  ;  it  is 
filled  with  life  and  animation ;  the  treasures  and  wonders  of 
the  deep  seem  almost  unbounded.  The  Air,  lighter  than 
earth  and  water,  extending  on  all  sides  about  forty  miles  in 
height,  surrounds  the  whole  globe,  separating  us  from  the  un- 
known elements  which  exist  beyond  it.  Among  the  inorgani- 
zed substances  upon  our  globe,  is  Heat  or  Caloric,  a  subtle  fluid 
wlu'ch  pervades  all  matter,  in  an  increasing  proportion  from 
solids  to  fluids,  and  from  fluids  to  gases ;  and  Light,  which  re- 
flects its  hues  from  terrestrial  objects,  producing  by  the  de- 
comi>osition  of  its  rays,  all  the  beautiful  variety  of  colouring. 
The  laws  which  govern  these  two  substances,  so  extended  in 
their  existence,  and  so  various  in  their  operations,  are  explain- 
ed in  the  sciences  of  Chemistry  and  Optics. 

Wherever  we  turn  our  eyes,  we  behold  wonders  ;  "  if  we 
go  up  to  Heaven,  God  is  there ;"  "  the  firmament  showeth 
forth  his  handy  work  ;"  if  we  contemplate  the  earth  on  which 
we  are  placed,  and  all  its  varied  tribes  of  beings,  with  the  in- 
organized  substances  formed  for  their  comfort  and  subsistence, 
we  realize,  that  "  even  the  hairs  of  our  head  are  all  number- 
ed," and  that  it  is  indeed  GOD,  "  who  maketh  the  grass  to 
grow  upon  the  mountains,  and  herbs  for  the  use  of  man." 

Different  kinds  of  inorganic  matter — The  Deity  manifested  in  his  work. 


; 


CONCLUSION. 


THE  Universe,  how  vast !  exceeding  far, 
The  bounds  of  human  thought ;  millions  of  suns 
With  their  attendant  worlds,  moving  around     ; 
Some  common  centre,. gravitation  strange ! 
Beyond  the  thought  ot  finite  minds  to  scan. 
Can  HE,  who  in  the  highest  heav'n  sublime, 
Enthron'd  in  glory,  guides  these  mighty  orbs, 
Can  HE  behold  this  little  spot  of  earth, 
Lost  midst  the  grandeur  of  the  heav'nly  host? 
Can  GOD  bestow  one  thought  on  fall'n  man  ? 

Turn,  child  of  ignorance  and  narrow  views, 
Thy  wilder'd  sight,  from  off  these  dazzling  scenes ; 
Turn  to  thy  earth  and  trace  the  wonders  there. 
Who  pencils,  with  variegated  shade, 
The  lowly  flower,  that  decks  the  rippling  stream, 
Or  gorgeously  attires  the  lily  race? 
Who,  with  attentive  care,  each  year  provides, 
A  germ  to  renovate  the  fading  plant, 
And  gives  soft  show'rs,  and  vivifying  warmth ; 
Kindling  within  the  embryo  inert, 
The  little  spark  of  life,  unseen  by  all, 
Save  him  who  gave  it,  and  with  care  preserved  ? 
Who  teaches,  when  this  principle  of  life 
Thus  animated,  swells  the  germ  within, 
And  bursts  its  tomb,  rising  to  light  and  air ; 
Who  teaches  root  and  stem  to  find  their  place, 
Each  one  to  seek  its  proper  element  ? 

Wh°  gilds  the  insect's  wings  and  leads  it  forth 
To  feast  on  sweets,  and  bask  in  sunny  ray  ? 
None  could  the  life  of  plant  or  insect  give ; 
Save  GOD  alone,  HE  rules  and  watches  all ; 
»Scorns  not  the  least  of  all  His  works  j  much  less 
Man,  made  in  his  image,  destin'd  to  exist, 
When  e'en  yon  brilliant  worlds  shall  cease  to  be. 
Then  how  should  man  rejoicing  in  his  GOD, 
Delight  in  His  perfections,  shadow'd  forth 
In  every  little  flow'r,  and  blade  of  grass  ! 
Each  opening  bud,  and  care  perfected  seed, 
Is  as  a  page,  where  we  may  read  of  GOD. 


NOTE. 


THE  following  description  of  genera  and  species  is  intended 
to  furnish  exercises  for  the  student  in  practical  botany.  It  is 
designed  to  include  the  most  common  indigenous  and  exotic 
plants ;  such  as  teachers  can  most  readily  procure  for  their 
classes,  .and  such  as  pupils  are  most  likely  to  meet  with  in 
their  botanical  excursions.  Those  who  expect  to  go  beyond 
the  elements  of  the  science,  will  find  in  the  Manual  of  Profes- 
sor Eaton  a  complete  list  of  American  plants. 

Botanical  Districts. 

Eaton  considers  North  America  as  divided  into  two  botanical 
districts ,  northern  and  southern.  The  dividing  line  to  be  drawn 
from  the  mouth  of  Delaware  river  (N.  Lat.  39°,  W.  Lon. 
75°),  to  the  south  end  of  Lake  Michigan  (N.  Lat.  41°  31') ; 
leaving  in  the  northern  district  all  Pennsylvania,  and  the  north 
part  of  Delaware,  Maryland  and  Ohio.  The  division  line  thus 
rises  as  we  go  towards  the  west,  because  southern  plants  ex- 
tend to  higher  latitudes  on  the  western  side  of  the  Allegany 
range,  than  on  the  eastern  side. 

The  northern  district  is  divided  into  eastern  and  western,  by 
a  line  drawn  from  the  intersection  of  the  Allegany  range  and 
the  Potomac  river,  in  the  direction  of  Cayuga  lake.  The 
Allegany  mountain  is  the  dividing  line  in  the  southern  district. 

Explanation  of  figures,   Letters   and   characters,    used  in  the 
Generic  and  Specific  descriptions. 

Numbers. 

The  first  number  following  the  generic  description,  is  the 
number  of  the  natural  order  of  Linnaeus,  the  second  number 
is  that  of  Jussieu. 

Letters* 

E  and  W  are  used  to  denote  that  the  plant  is  found  in  the 
eastern  or  western  division  of  either  of  the  districts. 

S,  at  the  end  of  a  description,  shows  that  the  plant  grows  in 
the  southern  as  well  as  northern  district. 


NOTE.  341 

j 

O  (omnibus  locis*),  indicates  that  the  plant  is  common  to 
the  whole  district. 

A  (alpine),  indicates  that  the  plant  is  most  common  on 
mountains,  or  elevated  places. 

L  (littoribus-\),  indicates  that  the  plant  is  most  common  at 
or  near  shores. 

Colours  of  Corollas. 
r.  red — p.  purple — y.  yellow — w.  white — b.  blue — g.  green. 

^         Time  of  Flowering. 

Ap.  April — M.  May — J.  June — Ju.  July — Au.  August — 
S.  September — Oc.  October. 

Duration,  fyc. 
©  annual —  $  biennial — ^perennial —  J?  woody. 

Accent  and  quantity. 

The  marks  over  the  generic  and  specific  names,  have  re- 
ference, not  only  to  the  syllable  which  is  to  be  accented,  but  to 
the  quantity  of  the  voivel  in  the  accented  syllable,  as  either 
long  or  short. 

Those  syllables  over  which  the  single  mark  is  placed,  have 
the  vowel  pronounced  long,  as  in  Fra-ga' -ri-a :  those  over 
which  the  double  mark  is  placed,  have  the  vowel  pronounced 
short,  as  in  lie-pat" -i-ca;  in  the  latter  case  the  stress  of  voice 
seems  thrown  upon  the  consonant ;  the  two  marks  may,  there- 
fore, be  considered  as  indicating  that  the  consonant,  as  well 
as  vowel  is  accented. 

The  general  rule  respecting  words  of  two  syllables  is  sim- 
ple, and  renders  it  unnecessary  to  prefix  to  such  words  the 
marks  for  accent  and  quantity. 

Words  of  two  syllables  always  have  the  accent  on  the  fast ; 
if  the  syllable  end  with  a  vowel  it  is  long,  as  in  Cro'-cus ;  if  it 
end  with  a  consonant  it  is  short,  as  in  Cac"-tus. 

*  Literally  translated,  in  all  places.  t  By  shores. 


29* 


jr 


GENERA    OF  PLANTS. 

The  following  descriptions  of  genera  and  species,  are  mostly  quoted  from 
Eaton's  Manual ;  a  few  however,  have  been  selected  from  Pursh,  and  Torrey's 
Botany,  Withering's,  and  some  others. 


CLASS    I.      MONANDRIA. 

ORDER  I.      MONOGYNIA. 

SALICOR"NIA.  Calyx  inflated,  entire,  3  or  4-sided,  obconic  :  corolla  0;  style 
2-cleft :  seed  1,  enclosed  in  the  calyx.  12.  29— (samphire).  S. 

HIPPU'RIS.  Calyx  superior,  obsolete,  with  a  2-lobed  margin;  corolla  0; 
seed  1 :  stigma  simple  :  style  in  the  groove  of  the  anther.  15. 88— (marestail). 

ORDER   II.      DIGYNIA. 

BLI'TUM.  Calyx  3-cleft,  or  3-parted,  berry-like  :  corolla  0 :  seed  1,  immersed 
in  the  calyi*  12.  29— (blite). 

CLASS    II.      DIANDRIA. 

ORDER    I.      MOftOGYNIA. 

A-   Corolla  l-petalled,  inferior,  Regular :  seeds  in  a  drupe  or  nut. 

LIGUS"TRUM.  Calyx  4-toothed :  corolla  with  4  ovate  divisions :  berry  1  or 
2-celled,  2  or  4-seeded.  44.  37— (prim). 

CHIONAN"THUS.  Calyx  4-parted ;  corolla  4-parted,  with  very  long  divi- 
sions ;  nucleus  of  the  drupe,  striate-fibrous.  44.  37—  (fringe-tree). 

Exotics. 

JAS"MINUM.  Corolla  salver-form,  5  to  8  cleft :  berry  2-seeded,  each  seed 
solitary,  arilled.  44.  37 — (jasmine). 

SYRIN"GA.    Corolla  salver-form :  capsule  2-celled.     44.  37 — (lilac). 
B.    Corolla  l-petalled,  inferior,  irregular;  seeds  in  capsules. 

VERON"ICA.  Calyx  4-parted  :  corolla  cleft  into  4  lobes,  lower  division 
smaller  -.  capsule  obcordate,  few-seeded,  2-celled.  40.  35— (speedwell).  S. 

LEPTAN"DRA.  Calyx  5-parted,  segments  acuminate :  corol  tubular  cam- 
panulate,  border  4-lobed,  a  little  ringent,  lower  segment  narrower  :  stamens 
and  at  length  the  pistils  much  exserted  :  capsule  ovate,  acuminate,  opening  at 
the  top.  40.  35— (culver's  physic).  S. 

GRA'TIOLA.  Calyx  5-parted,  often  with  2  bracts  at  the  base:  corol  irregu- 
lar, resupinate,  2-lipped,  upper  lip  2-lobed,  lower  one  equally  3-cleft :  stigma 
2-lipped  ;  capsule  2-celled,  2  valved.  40.  40 — (hedge-hyssop.)  S. 

LINDER"NIA.  Calyx  4-parted  :  corol  resupinate,  tubular,  2-lipped ;  upper 
lip  short,  reflexed,  emarginate  ;  lower  one  trifid,  unequal :  filaments  4,  the  2 
longer  ones  forked  and  barren :  capsule  2-celled,  2-valved,  the  dissepiment 
parallel  to  the  valves.  40.  40.  S. 

CATAL"PA.  Corolla  4  or  5-cleft,  somewhat  inflated,  bell-form  :  calyx  2-part- 
ed  or  2. leaved :  stigma  2-lipped  :  capsule  cylindric,  2-celled.  40.  45— (catalpa 
tree.)  S. 

C.   Corolla  l-petalled,  inferior,   irregular ;   seeds  naked. 

MONAR"DA.  Calyx  cylindric,  striated,  5-toothed  :  corolla  ringent,  tubular, 
tipper  lip  lance-linear,  involving  the  filaments,  lower  lip  reflexed,  3-lobed.  42. 
39 — (Oswego  tea,  mountain-mint).  S. 

LYCO'PUS.  Calyx  tubular,  5-cleft  or  5-toothed :  corol  tubular,  4-cleft,  near- 
ly equal :  upper  division  broader  and  emarginate  :  stamens  distant :  seeds  4, 
retuse.  42.  39— (water  horehound).  5. 


344  CLASS  III.  ORDER  II. 

SAL"VIA.  Calyx  tubular,  striated,  2  lipped,  under  lip  2  to  3-toothed, 
lower  lip  2-cleft:  corolla  ringent,  upper  lip  concave,  lower  lip  broad,  three - 
lobed,  the  middle  lobe  the  largest,  notched  ;  stamens  with  two  spreading 
branches,  one  of  which  bears  a  one-celled  anther ;  germ  four  cleft ;  stylo 
thread-shaped,  curved  ;  seeds  4,  in  the  bottom  of  the  calyx.  42.  39 — (sage).  X. 

COLLINSO'NIA.  Calyx  tubular,  2-lipped,  upper  lip  3-loothed  :  corolla  funnel- 
form,  unequal,  under  lip  many-cleft,  capillary :  one  perfect  seed.  42.  3U — 
(horse-balm).  S. 

Exotic. 

ROSMARI'NUS.  Corolla  ringent,  upper  lip  2-parted  :  filaments  long,  curved, 
simple,  with  a  tooth.  42.  3U — (rosemary). 

D.  Corolla  superior. 

CIRC^E'A.  Calyx  2-leaved  or  2-parted ;  corolla  2-petalled  :  capsule  hispid, 
2-celled,  not  gaping ;  cells  1  or  2  seeded,  seed*  oblong.  48.  88— (enchanter's 
nightshade).  >'. 

ORDER   II.      DYOTNIA. 

ANTHOXAN"THUM.  Calyx  of  two  egg-shaped,  pointed,  concave,  chaffy 
scales  ;  1  flowered  ;  corolla  of  two  equal  husks,  shorter  than  the  calyx,  awned 
on  the  back ;  an  internal  corolla  or  nectary,  consisting  of  two  egg-shaped 
minute  scales  ;  stamens  longer  than  the  corolla  ;  anther  oblong,  forked  at  both 
ends ;  germ  superior  ;  seed,  one.  4.  10— (sweet  vernal  grass).  S. 

CLASS    III.    TRIANDRIA. 

ORDER   I.      MONOGYNIA. 

A.   Flowers  superior. 

I'RIB.  Calyx  spatha  2  or  3-valved :  corolla  6-parted,  divisions  alternately 
reflexed :  stigmas  3,  petal-like  :  style  short  :  capsule  3-celled.  6.  18—  (flower- 
de-luce,  iris  or  flag).  S. 

Exotic. 

CRO'CUB.    Spatha  radical :  corolla  funnel  form,  with  a  long  slender  tube : 
stigma  deep-gashed,  crested.    6.  18 — (saffron). 
Southern. 

IX"IA.  Spatha  2  or  3-valved,  ovate,  short  ;  corolla  6-parted  or  6-petalled  ; 
sometimes  tubular  :  stamens  strait  or  incurved ;  stigmas  sub-filiform  (black 
berry-lily).  6.  18. 

B.   Flowers  inftrinr. 

COMMELI'NA.  Spatha  cordate ;  perianth  3-leaved  :  corolla  3-petalled  sub- 
equal :  3  barren  filaments — sonic-times  the  whole  6  filaments  bear  anthers  ; 
stigma  simple  :  nectaries  3,  cross-form,  inserted  on  peculiar  filaments  :  capsule 
sub-globose,  3-oelled,  cells  ^-seeded  or  empty.  6. 13 — (day-flower).  S. 

XY'RIS.  Calyx  a  cartilaginous  glume,  2  or  3-valved,  in  a  head  :  corolla  3- 
petnlled,  equal,  crenate  :  capsule  3-valved,  many -seeded.  6.  13— (yellow-eyed- 
grasa).  <S\ 

ORDER.   II.      DYGYM.V. 
A.  Spiketets  \-fiovered  :  corolla*  without  iifioitire  rudiments  of  flowers  at  the  ba»e. 

(C"  '  n  different  in  texture). 

LEER"SIA.  Calyx  0 ;  corol  2-valved,  closed ;  valves  compressed,  boat 
shaped  :  nectary  obovale,  entire,  collateral  :  stamens  varying  in  number.  4. 
10— (cut-grass).  S. 

Ezotir. 

SAC"CHARUM.  Calyx  involucred  with  long  wool  at  the  base,  2-valved  :  co- 
rolla 1  or  2-valved :  stamens  1  to  3.  4.  10 — (sugar-cane). 

(Cf.lt/r  and  Curoi'u  m   similar  texture — -fioicersin  spreading  panicles). 
AGROS"TIS.    Calyx  herbaceous,  2-valved,  1-flowered,  valves  acute  :  a  little 
less  llian   the  corolla  :   corolla  2-valved,  membranaceous,  often  hairy  at  the 
base :  stigmas  longitudinally  hispid  or  plumose,  florets  spreading :  nectary 
lateral  :  seed  coated.    4.  10  -(redtop).  S. 

ARDN"DO.    Calyx  2-valved,  unequal,  membranaceous,  surrounded  with  hair 
at  the  base  ;  lower  valve  niucronate  or  slightly  awned.    Sometimes  these  is  a 
pencil-form  rudimentat  the  base  of  the  upper  valve.    4.  10 — (reed). 
(Ca/yor  and  corolla  of  similar  texture — -Jiwcers  in  compact  panicles,  often  »pikar 

furm\ 
Calyx  hard,  &valved,  equal,  sessile,  linear,  truncate,  bieuspidate  . 


CLASS  IV.  ORDER  I.  345 

corolla  enclosed  in  the  calyx,  2-valved,  awnless,  truncate.    4.  10 — (timothy- 
grass).  S. 
B.  Spikelets  1  flowered ;  corolla  with   1  or  2  abortive  rudiments  of  flowers  at  th* 

base. 

(Calyx  and  corolla  of  similar  texture). 

PHALA'RIS.    Calyx  membranaceous,  2-valved,  valves  keeled,  nerved,  equal 
in  length,  including  the  2-valyed  pilose  corolla.    The  corolla  is  shorter  than 
the  calyx  and  coriaceous  :  rudiments  opposite,  sessile,  resembling  valves :  nec- 
tary lateral.    4.  10 — (ribbon-grass, canary-grass).  -S. 
C.   Spikelets  many-flowered. 
(Flowers  in  panicles  ;  corolla  unarmed). 

BRI'ZA.  Spikelets  heart-ovate,  many-flowered  :  calyx  chaffy,  shorter  than 
the  2-ranked  florets  :  corolla  ventricose  :  lower  valve  cordate,  upper  one  orbi- 
cular, short.  4.  10 — (quake-grass).  S. 

PO'A.  Spikelets  oblong  or  linear,  compressed,  many-flowered  :  calyx  short- 
er than  the  florets  :  corolla  herbaceous,  awnless,  often  arachnoid  at  the  base  ; 
lower  valve  scarious  at  the  margin.  4.  10. — (spear-grass).  S. 

Exotic. 

SORG"HUM.  Florets  in  pairs,  one  perfect,  with  a  3-valved  corolla,  and  ses- 
sile ;  the  other  staminate  or  neutral,  and  pedicelled.  4.  10— (broom-corn). 

(Flowers  in  panicles  ;  corol  armedtor  mucronate.) 

DAC"TYLIS.  Spikelets  aggregated  in  unilateral  heads,  many-flowered  :  ca- 
lyx shorter  than  the  florets,  with  one  large  glume,  keeled,  pointed  •.  corolla 
with  the  lower  valve  keeled,  emarginate,  mucronate  ;  upper  valve  sub-condu- 
plicate.  4.  10— (orchard-grass.)  S. 

AVE'NA.  Calyx  2-valved ;  2,  3,  or  many  flowered  :  corolla,  valves  mostly 
bearded  at  the  base,  lower  one  torn,  with  a  twisted  awn  on  the  back  :  glumes 
membranaceous,  and  somewhat  follicle-like  :  seed  coated.  4.  10 — (oats).  S. 

D.   Flowers  in  spikes. 

LO'LIUM.  Calyx  1 -leafed,  permanent,  many  flowered  ;  florets  in  many  flow- 
ered 2-rowed  simple  sessile  spikelets  on  a  rachis  :  lower  valve  of  the  corolla 
herbaceous-membranaceous,  mucronate,  or  bristled  at  the  tip.  4.  10 — (darnel- 
grass.) 

TRI'TICUM.  Calyx  2-valved,  about  3-flowered  ;  florets  sessile  on  the  teeth 
of  the  rachis,  obtusish  and  pointed ;  glumes  beardless,  or  interruptedly  bearded. 
4.  10. — (wheat). 

SECA'LE.  Calyx  2-valved,  2  or  3-flowered  :  spikelets  sessile  on  the  teeth  of 
the  rachis,  with  the  terminal  floret  abortive  :  calyx  2-valved  ;  glumes  subulate, 
opposite,  shorter  than  the  florets  :  corolla  with  the  lower  varre  long-awned. 
4.  lO-(rye). 

E.  Flowers  polygamous. 

(in  panicles'). 

PAN"ICUM.  Calyx  2-valved,  2-flowered ;  the  lower  glume  generally  very 
small ;  the  lower  floret  abortive,  1  or  2-valved  ;  the  lower  valve  resembling 
the  calyx,  the  upper  one  membranaceous  :  perfect  floret  with  cartilaginous 
valves,  unarmed.  4.  10— (cockfoot-grass,  panic-grass).  -S. 

(In  spikes). 

HOR"DEUM.  Spikelets  3  at  each  joint  of  the  rachis,  1  or  2-flowered,  all  per- 
fect, or  the  lateral  ones  abortive  :  glume  lateral,  subulate  :  perfect  flower  with 
a  2-valved  corolla ;  lower  valve  ending  in  a  bristle :  seed  coated.  4.  10— 
(barley). 

ORDER   III.      TRIGYNJA. 

MOLLU'GO.  Calyx  5-leaved,  coloured  within :  corol  0 :  capsule  3-celled,  3- 
valred.  22.  82— (carpet-weed).  S. 


CLASS    IV.    TETRANDRIA. 

ORDER    I.      MONOGYNIA. 
A.   Flowers  superior. 

(1-petalled). 

CEPHALAN"THUS.  Inflorescence  in  a  head  :  general  calyx  none ;  proper  ca- 
lyx superior,  minute,  angular,  4-cleft :  corolla  funnel-form ;  receptacle  globu- 
lar, hairy:  capsules  2  to  4-partible  :  seed  solitary,  oblong.  48.  56— (buttou- 
bush).  S. 


346  CLASS  V.  ORDER  I. 

DIP"SACUS.  Flowers  in  an  ovate  or  roundish  capitulum  ;  common  calyx 
(involucre)  polyphyllous,  foliaceous ;  proper  calyx  monophyllous,  superior  : 
corol  tubular,  4-cleft :  seed  solitary,  with  a  wine-glass  -form  egret :  receptacle, 
conic,  paleaceous.  48.  56 — ;,  tassel). 

GA'LIUM.  Calyx  4-toothed  :  corolla  flat,  4-cleft:  fruit  dry  :  seeds  2,  round- 
ish :  (leaves  stellate).  47 — 57 — ^bedstrawj.  A'. 

HOCSTO'NIA.  Calyx  half  superior,  4-toothed  :  corolla  salver-form,  4-cleft ; 
capsule  2-celled,  many-.--  '  -d,  opening  transversely.  47.  57) — (Venus' 
pride).  S.  . 

MITCHEL"I.A.  Car  j.  t,>  :  corols  2  on  each  gorm,  funnel-form ;  tab* 
cylindric  ;  limit  '  \f'~r.  lose  on  the  inside:  stamens  scarcely 

exsert;  stiginii  1-,     ,  .  s.  cdcd.     4*.  57—  partridge-berry ).$. 

LIN.N./E'A.  Calyx  doubV;  nwtof  the  fruit  2-leaved,  inferior  ;  that  of  the 
flower  5-parted  :  corolla  bell-form,  5-lobed ;  stamens  somewhat  didynamous  ; 
stigma  globose  :  berry  3-celled,  dry,  generally  producing  a  perfect  seed  in  but 
one  cell.  48.  58— vtwin-flower). 

Southern. 

RU'BIA.    Calyx  4-toothed  i  corolla  4  or  5-cleft,  bell-form  :  berries  2,  one- 
seeded,  (stamens  4-5 ;  leaves  stellate).    47.57 — (madder). 
(\-petu  //"/.) 

COR"NUS.  Calyx  4-toothed  :  drupe  with  a  2-celled  nut.  Some  species  have 
a  4-leaved  involucrum.  45.  58— (dogwood,  false  box).  S. 

LUDWE'GIA.    Calyx  4  parted,  persistent :  corol  sometimes  0 :  capsule  quad- 
rangular, 4-ceiled,  inferior,  many-seeded.     17. 88.— 5. 
B.  Plotters  inferior, 
(l-pe  tolled). 

PLANTA'GO.  Calyx  4-cleft  r  corolla  4-cleft,  reflexed :  capsule  2-celled,  open- 
ing ^transversely  :  stamens  exsert,  very  long.  54.  31— (plantain,  ribwort).  <S. 

ECUI"UM.  Calyx  5-parted  ;  segments  subulate,  erect :  corol  sub-campanu- 
late;  tube  very  short  ;  border  unequally  5-lobed,  the  lower  segment  acute  and 
reflexed ;  orifice  naked  :  stigma  bifid  ;  seeds  tuberculate,  not  perforated  at  the 
base.  41.  42. 

Southern. 

LY'CIDM.  Corolla  tubular,  having  the  throat  closed  by  the  beards  of  the 
filamejits  :  stamens  often  5  :  berry  2-celled  ;  many-seeded.  28.  41 — (matri- 
mony). 

(Apetalous\ 

ICTO'DES.  ,  General  calyx  a  spatha ;  spadix  simple,  covered  with  flowers  ; 
perianth  corolla-like,  deeply  4-parted,  permanent,  becoming  thick  and  spongy  : 
style  pymmid-form,  4-sided  ;  stigma  simple,  minute ;  berries  globose,  2-seeded, 
inclosed  in  the  spongy  spadix  receptacle:  2.  7 — (skunk-cabbage). 

ORDER   II.      DIGYSIA. 

HAMAME'LIS.  Involucrum  3-leaved  :  perianth  4-leaved  or  4-rleft :  petals  4, 
very  long,  linear  :  nut  2-celled,  2-horned.  54.  78— (witch-hazel).  Flowers 
in  autumn,  and  perfects  its  seed  the  following  spring.  S. 

ORDER    IV.      TETRAGYNIA. 

ILEX.  Calyx  minute,  4  or  5-toothed  :  corolla  4-parted,  wheel-form  :  style 
0  :  stigmas  4;  berry  4-celled,  cells  1-seeded.  43.  95— (holly). 

CLASS    V.    PENTANDRIA. 

ORDER   I.      MONOGYNIA. 

A.  Flowers  l-petalled,  inferior  ;  seeds  naked  in  the  bottom  of  the  calyx. 

ROUGH-LEAVED   PLANTS. 

MYOSO'TIS.  Calyx  half  5-cleft  or  5-cleft ;  corolla  salver-form,  curved,  5- 
cleft,  vaulted,  the  lobes  slightly  emarginate  ;  throat  closed  with  5  convex  con- 
verging scales  :  seeds  smooth  or  echinate.  41  42 — (scorpion  grass).  S. 

CYNOGLOS"SUM.      Calyx  5-parted  :    corolla  short,  funnel-form,  vaulted  ; 
throat  closed  by  5  converging  convex  processes;  seeds  depressed,  affixed  lat- 
erally to  the  style.    41.  42- (hound-tongue).  S. 
Exotic. 

BORA'GO.   Corolla  wheel-form,  the  throat  closed  with  rays.  41.  42— (borage). 

ANCHU'SA.    Calyx  5-parted  ;  corolla  funnel-form,  vaulted  ;  throat  closed ; 


CLASS  V.  ORDER  I.  347 

seeds  marked  at  the  base,  and  their  surface  generally  veined.    41.  42 — (bug- 
loss). 

SYM"PHYTUM.  Limb,  or  upper  part  of  the  corolla,  tubular-swelling ;  the 
throat  closed  with  subulate  rays,  41.  42 — (comfrey). 

Southern. 

HELIOTRO'PIUM.  Calyx  tubular,  5-toothed;  corolla  salver-form,  5-cleft, 
with  teeth  or  folds  between  the  divisions  ;  throat  open.  (Spikes  recurved,  in- 
volute). 41.42 — (turnsol). 

B.  Flowers  l-petalled,  inferior;  seeds  covered. 

{Capsule  1  celled). 

ANAGAL/'LIS.  Calyx  5  parted  ;  corolla  wheel-form,  deeply  5-lobed  ;  cap- 
sule opening  transversely,  globose,  many-seeded  ;  stamens  hairy.  20.  34— 
(scarlet pimpernel;.  S. 

LYSIMACH"IA.  Calyx  5-cleft;  corolla  wheel-form,  5-cleft ;  capsule  1-celled, 
globular,  5  or  10-valved,  mucronate  :  stigma  obtuse.  (In  some  species  the 
filaments  are  united  at  the  base;.  20.34 — (.loose-strife).  &. 

PRI'MULA.  Umbellets  inyolucred  :  calyx  tubular,  5-toothed ;  corolla  salver- 
form,  5-lobed  ;  tube  cylindric  ;  throat  open  ;  divisions  of  corolla  emarginate  ; 
capsule  1-celled  with  a  10-cleft  mouth :  stigma  globular.  21.  34 — (primrose 
cowslip). 

(Capsule  2-celled — rarely  3-celled). 

VERBAS"CUM.  Calyx  5-parted  ;  corolla  wheel-form,  5  lobed,  somewhat  iis 
regular  ;  stamens  declined,  hairy  ;  capsules  2-celled,  2-valved  ;  valves  inflex- 
ed  when  ripened,  many-seeded.  28.41 — (mullein).  S. 

NICOTIA'NA.  Calyx  urceolate,  sub-tubular,  5-cleft;  corolla  funnel-form, 
5-cleft,  limb  plaited  :  stigma  notched,  capitate ;  stamens  inclined  ;  capsules 
2-celled,  2  to4-valved.  28.41 — ^tobacco). 

CONVOL/'VULUS.  Calyx  5-parted,  with  or  without  2  bracts  ;  corolla  funnel- 
form,  plaited  ;  stigma  2-cleft  or  double  ;  cells  of  the  capsule  2  or  3  ;  each  one 
or  2  seeded.  29.  43— (bind-weed).  S. 

IPOM^E'A.  Calyx  5-cleft ;  naked ;  corolla  funnel  or  bell-form,  with  5  folds  ; 
stigma  globe-headed,  papillose  ;  capsule  2  or  3-celled,  many  seeded.  29.  43 — 
(cypress  vine,  morning  glory).  S. 

(Capsule  3  to  5  celled). 

PHILOX.  Calyx  prismatic,  5-cleft  ;  segments  converging  :  corolla  salver- 
form,  5-lobed,  with  a  tube  somewhat  curved  ;  filaments  unequal  in  length,  at- 
tached to  the  inside  of  the  tube  of  the  corolla  ;  stigmas  3-cleft ;  cells  1  seeded, 
seeds  oblong,  concave.  20.  44 — (lichnedia).  S. 

DATU'RA.  Calyx  tubular,  angled,  caducous,  with  a  permanent  orbicular 
base  ;  corolla  funnel-form,  plaited ;  capsule  4-valved,  2-celled,  and  each  cell 
half  divided;  generally  thorny.  28.41 — (thorn-apple).  S. 

AZA'LEA.  Calyx  5-parted  ;  corolla  tubular,  half  5-cleft,  somewhat  oblique  ; 
stamens  on  the  receptacle,  declined  ;  stigma  declined,  obtuse,  usually  ending 
with  5  short  papillae  ;  capsule  5-celled,  5-valved,  opening  at  the  top.  18.  50— 
(wild  honeysuckle).  S. 

VIN"C  A.  Corolla  salver-form,  twisted,  border  5-cleft,  with  oblique  divisions  ; 
throat  5-angled  ;  seed  naked,  oblong ;  follicle-like  capsules  2,  erect,  terete, 
narrow.  30.  47. 

(Seed  in  a  berry). 

SOLA'NUM.  Calyx  5  to  10-parted,  permanent ;  corolla  bell  or  wheel-form, 
5-lobed,  plaited  ;  anthers  thickened,  partly  united,  with  two  pores  at  the  top  ; 
berry  containing  many  seeds,  2  to  6-celled.  28.  41 — (potatoe,  nightshade,  bit- 
ter-sweet). (S. 

Exotic. 

CAP"SICUM.  Corolla  wheel-form ;  berry  juiceless,  inflated ;  anthers  con- 
verging ;  calyx  angular.  28.41 — ;red  pepper). 

C.  floirers  1-petaUed,  superior. 

(Seeds  in  a  capsule.) 

CAMPANULA.  Calyx  mostly  5-cleft ;  corolla  bell-form,  closed  at  the  bottom 
by  valves  bearing  the  flattened  stamens  ;  stigma  3  to  5-cleft  ;  capsules  3  to 
5-celled,  opening  by  lateral  pores.  29.  52 --^bell-flower).  &. 

LOBE'LIA  Calyx  5-cleft  ;  corolla  irregular,  often  irregularly  slitted  ;  an- 
thers cohering,  and  somewhat  curved  ;  stigma  2-lobed  ;  capsule  2  or  3-celled. 
29.  52 — (cardinal  flower,  wild  tobacco).  S. 


348  CLASS  V.  ORDER  IL 

DIERVIL"LA.    Calyx  oblong,  5-cleft,  with  2  bracts  ;  corolla  5-cleft,  twice  as 
long  as  the  calyx,  funnel-form  ;  border  5-cleft,  spreading  ;  stigma  capitate  ; 
capsule  oblong,  4-celled,  naked,  many-seeded.  48  58 — (bush  honeysuckle.  5. 
(Heeds  in   a^terry.) 

LO.VICE'RA.  CAPIFO'LIUM.  Calyx  5-toothed  ;  cbrolla  tubular,  long,  5-cleft, 
unequal ;  stamens  exsert ;  stigmas  globose  ;  berry  2  or  3-celled,  distinct ;  seeds 
many.  48.  58. — (trumpet  honey  suckle).  S. 

XYLOS"TEUM.  Calyx  5-toothed,  with  2  connate  bracts  ;  corolla  tubular  ; 
border  5-parted,  nearly  equal ;  berries  in  pairs,  united  at  their  bases,  or  com- 
bined in  one ;  2-celled.  48.  58 — (fly  honeysuckle,  twin-berry). 

Exotic. 

MIRA'BILIS.  Corolla  funnel-form,  coarctate  (compressed  or  narrowed)  be- 
low ;  calyx  inferior  ;  germ  between  the  calyx  and  corolla  ;  stigma  globular. 
64.  32— (four-o'clock). 

D.  Flowers  5-petatted,  inferior. 

(Seed  in  a  capsule.) 

IMPA'T  IENS.  Calyx  2-leaved,  deciduous  ;  corolla  irregular,  spurred ;  anthers 
cohering  at  the  top  ;  capsule  5-valved,  bursting  elastically  when  ripe.  24.  73— 
(touch-me-not, jewel  weed).  S. 

VI'OLA.  Calyx  5-leaved  or  deeply  5-cleft,  corolla  irregular,  with  a  horn  be- 
hind (sometimes  the  horn  is  wanting  or  a  mere  prominence) ;  anthers  attached 
by  a  membranous  tip,  or  slightly  cohering  ;  capsule  1 -celled,  3  valved.  29.  80. 
— (violet).  S. 

CLAYTO'NIA.  Calyx  2-leaved  or  2-parted,  the  leaves  valve-like  :  corolla  3- 
petalled,  emarginate  :  stigma  3-cleft  :  capsule  1-celled,  3-valved,  3  to  5-seeded. 
13. 86— (spring  beauty).  <S'. 

CEAN'OTHOS.  Petals  scale-like,  vaulted  :  claws  long,  standing  in  the  5-cleft, 
cup-form  calyx  ;  stigma  3  berry  or  capsule  dry,  3-grained,  3-celled,  3-seeded, 
3-parted,  opening  on  the  inner  side.  43.  95 — (New  Jersey  tea)  S. 

CELAS"TRUS.  Calyx  5-lobed,  flat :  corolla  spreading  :  capsule  obtusely  3- 
angled,  3-celled,  berry-like  :  valves  bearing  the  partitions  on  their  centres  ; 
cells  1  or  2-seeded  :  stamens  standing  around  a  glandular  5-toothetl  disk  :  style 
thick  :  stigma  3-cleft :  seeds  calyptred  or  arilled.  43.  95— (staff  tree,  fake 
bittersweet). 

Exotic. 

GOMPHRE"NA.  Calyx  5-leaved,  coloured  ;  exterior  one  3-leaved  ;  2  leafets 
converging,  keeled  ;  petals  5,  villose,  (or  rather  no  corolla  ;)  nectary  cylindric, 
5-toothed:  capsule  opening  transversely,  1-seeded  :  style  semi-bifid.  55.30 — 
(bachelor's  button). 

(Seed  in  a  berry.) 

VI'TIS.  Calyx  5-toothed,  minute  :  petals  cohering  at  the  tip,  hood-like, 
withering  :  style  0 :  stigma  obtuse,  capitate :  berry  5-seeded,  globular,  often 
dioecious  ;  seeds  sub-cordate.  46.  72— (grape  vine).  S. 

AMPELOP"SIS.  Cissus,  calyx, minute,  4-5-toothed  :  petals  4-5,  unconnected 
above,  deciduous  :  germ  surrounded  with  aglandulous  disk  :  berry  2-4  seeded 

E.  Flowers  5-petalled,  inferior. 

RI'BTCS.  Calyx  bell-form,  5-cleft,  (sometimes  flat) :  corolla  and  stamens  in- 
serted on  the  calyx:  style  2-cleft :  berry  many-seeded  36.  85 -(currant, 
gooseberry).  S. 

Exotic.  +, 

HKD"ERA.  Petals  oblong :  berry  5-seeded,  surrounded  by  the  calyx :  style 
simple.  46.58 — (European  ivy). 

ORDER   II.      DIGTNIA. 

A.  Corolla  l-petalled,  inferior. 

GEPTTIA'NA.  Calyx  4  or  5-cleft  :  corolla  with  a  tubular  base,  bell-form,  with- 
out pores,  4  or  5-cleft  :  stigmas  2,  sub-sessile  :  copsule  1-celled  oblong :  colu- 
mellas  2,  longitudinal :  stamens  but  4,  when  the  divisions  of  corolla  are  4.  47. 
46 — (gentian). 

CUS"CUTA.    Calyx  4  or  5-cleft,  corolla  4  or  5-cleft,  sub-campanulate,  wither- 


CLASS  V.    ORDER.  H.  349 

ing :  capsule  2-celled,  dividing  transversely  at  the  base ;  seeds  binate.    29.  43 
—(dodder). 

B.  Corolla  5-petalled. 

PA'NAX.  Polygamous.  Umbelled.  Involucrum  many-leaved :  calyx  5- 
toothed  in  the  perfect  flower,  superior  :  berry  heart-form,  2  or  3-seeded  :  calyx 
in  the  staminate  flower,  entire.  46.  59— (ginseng). 

C.  Corolla  wanting. 

CHENOPO'DIUM.  Calyx  5-parted,  obtusely  5-angled,  inferior :  style  deeply  2- 
cleft :  seed  1,  lens-like,  horizontal,  invested  by  the  calyx.  12.  29 — (pigweed, 
oak  of  Jerusalem).  S. 

UL"MUS.  Calyx  bell-form,  withering  ;  border  4  or  5-cleft :  seed  ],  enclosed 
in  a  flat  membranaceous  samara.  (Stamens  vary  from  4  to  8).  53.  99— 
(elm).  S. 

Exotic. 

BE'TA.  Calyx  5-leaved :  seed  kidney-form  within  the  fleshy  substance  of 
the  base  of  the  calyx.  12.  29— (beet). 

D.  Plants  umbelliferous :  flowers  5-petalled,  superior :  seeds  2. 
(Seeds  prickly  or  hispid.) 

SANIC"ULA.  Seeds  with  hooked  prickles,  oblong,  solid  :  umbels  nearly  sim- 
ple, capitate  :  flowers  polygamous  :t  involucre  few-flowered:  calyx  3-parted, 
permanent.  45.  60.  <S. 

DA'UCUS.  Seeds  striate  on  their  joining  sides  :  outer  sides  convex,  having 
hispid  ribs  :  involucrum  pinnatifid  :  flowers  sub-radiated,  abortive  in  the  disk. 
45.  60— (carrot).  S. 

URASPER"MUM.  SCANDIX.  MYRRHIS.  CHAEROPHYLLUM.  Seeds  sub- 
linear,  solid,  acute-angled,  not  striate  ;  ribs  5-acute  ;  angles  a  little  furrowed, 
hispid;  the  joining  sides  furrowed,  and  attached  to  a  2-cleft  columella-like  re- 
ceptacle :  style  subulate,  permanent,  rendering  the  seed  caudate  :  involucrum 
none  or  few-leaved.  Fruit  stiped,  oblanceolate,  polished,  part  of  it  hispid.  45. 
GO — (sweet  cicely). 

(Seeds  with  wing-like  ribs.') 

ANGELICA.  Seeds  with  three  ribs  on  their  backs,  and  winged  margins  : 
intervals  between  the  ribs  grooved  :  germ  oval,  corticate  ;  general  involucrum 
none.  45.  60 — (angelica). 

PASTINA'CA.  Seeds  emarginate  at  the  apex,  somewhat  winged  :  ribs  3  be- 
sides the  wings  :  intervals  striate  ;  joining  sides  2-striate  :  germ  oval,  com- 
pressed, perianth-calyx  entire  :  petals  entire,  incurved,  sub-equal  involucrum 
none.  45.  60— (parsnip). 

Exotic. 

ANE'THUM.    Seeds  flat  or  convex,  5-ribbed  :  germ  lenticular,  compressed : 
calyx  and  petals  entire :  involucrums  none.    45.  60 — (fennel,  dill). 
(Seeds  with  3  ribs,  nearly  equal.) 
Exotic. 

CA'RUM.  Seeds  oblong-ovate,  striate :  petals  carinate,  emarginate,  inflexed ; 
involucrum  about  1-leaved.  45.  60— (caraway). 

(Seeds  with  5  ribs,  nearly  equal.) 

CO'NIUM.  Seeds  5-ribbed  ;  ribs  at  first  crenate  with  flat  intervals  between 
them ;  germ  ovate,  gibbous  ;  perianth  entire  ;  petals  unequal,  cordate,  inflexed ; 
general  involucrum  about  three  to  5-leaved :  partial  ones  mostly  3-leaved,  uni- 
lateral. 45.  60 — (poison  hemlock). 

CICU'TA.  Seeds  gibbous-convex;  ribs  5,  obtuse, converging,  with  interve- 
ning tuberculate  grooves  and  prominences  ;  joining  sides  flat ;  germ  sub-glo- 
bose, corticate,  compressed  laterally ;  calyx  obsolete,  5-toothed ;  petals  cordate 
inflexed  ;  partial  involucrums  5  or  6-leaved,  or  wanting.  45.  60 — (water 
hemlock).  -S. 

Exotic. 

A'PIUM.  Seeds  convex  externally  ;  ribs  5,  small,  a  little  prominent  ;  germ 
sub-globose ;  perianth  entire  ;  petals  equal,  roundish,  inflexed  at  the  apex ;  invo- 
lucrum 1  to  3-leaved  or  wanting.  45.  60 — (celery,  parsley). 

CORIAN"DRUM.  Seeds  sub-spherical ;  germ  spherical  ;  perianth  5-toothed  ; 
petals  cordate  inflexed,  outer  ones  largest ;  involucrum  1-leaved,  or  wanting 
45.  60 -(coriander). 

30 


350  CLASS  VI.    ORDER  I. 

Southern. 

ARETHU'SA.  Fruit  ovate,  sub-solid,  having  bark ;  ribs  acute  and  turgid,  in- 
tervals acute-angled  ;  joining  sides  flat,  striate  ;  involucrum  1-sided,  or  none. 
45.  60— (fools' parsley). 

ORDER  III.      TRIGVNIA. 

A.  Flowers  superior. 

VIBUR"NUM.  Calyx  5-parted  or  5-toothed,  small  ;  corolla  bell-form,  5-cleft, 
with  spreading  or  reflexed  lobes  ;  stigmas  almost  sessile  :  berry  or  drupe  1- 
eeeded.  43.  58— (snowball,  sheep-berry,  high  cranberry).  S. 

SAMBU'CUS.  Calyx  5-parted  or  5-cleft,  small ;  corolla  sub-urceolate,  5-cleft ; 
stigma  minute,  sessile  :  berry  globose,  1-celled,  3-seeded.  43.  58— (elder).  A*. 

B.  Flowers  inferior. 

RHUS.  Calyx  5-parted, ;  petals  5  ;  berry  1-seeded,  small,  sub-globular.  43. 
94— (sumach,  poison-ivy),  o. 

STAPHYLE'A.  Calyx  5-parted,  coloured  ;  petals  5  on  the  margin  of  a  glan- 
dular 5-angled  disk  ;  capsules  inflated,  connate  ;  nuts  globular,  having  a  cica- 
trice, 1  or  2  remaining  in  each  capsule,  though  several  appear  a*  rudiments 
while  in  bloom.  23.  95— (bladder  nut).  S. 

ORDER    IV.      TETRAGYMA. 

PARNAS"SIA.  Calyx  inferior,  permanent,  5-parted  ;  corolla  5-petalled  ;  nec- 
taries 5-fringed,  with  stamen-like  divisions  ;  globular  tips ;  stigmas  sessile  ;  cajv- 
«ule  4-valved,  1  or  2-celled  ;  seed  membranaceous  margined.  14.  64 — (par- 
nassus  grass,  flowering  plantain).  S. 

ORDER  V.       PEXTAOYMA. 

ARA'LIA.  Umbellets  involucred  ;  perianth  5-toothed,  superior ;  petals  5  ; 
stigmas  sessile,  sub-globose  ;  berry  crowned,  5-celled  ;  cells  1-seeded.  46.  J9 
—(spikenard,  wild  sarsaparilla).  S. 

LI'NUM.  Calyx  5-leaved  or  5-parted,  permanent ;  corolla  5-petalled,  inferi- 
or, with  claws  ;  capsule  5  or  10-valved,  10  celled  ;  seeds  solitary,  ovate,  com- 
pressed ;  filaments  spreading  or  united  at  the  base-  14.  73— (flax).  S. 

OKDCR  VI.       HF.XAKYNIA. 

DROS"ERA.  Calyx  inferior,  deeply  "•-<  1.  ft,  permanent ;  petals  5,  marcescent ; 
anthers  ad  nate  ;  styles  6,  or  one  deeply  divided  ;  capsule  round,  1  or  3-<-flli'd, 
muny  seeded;  valves  equalling  th«-  number  of  stigmas.  20.  68  — (sundew  . 
The  leaves  of  all  the  species  are  beset  with  glandular  hairs  resembling  dew.  N. 

OXDKR  XIII.       I'tJl  Yl.Y.MA. 

ZANTHORHI'ZA.  Calyx  0  ;  petals  5  ;  nectaries  5,  pedicelled  ;  capsule  half 
2-valved,  1-seeded,  about  5  in  number.  26.  61— (yellow  root;.  .S. 

CLASS  VI.     HEXANDRIA. 

ORDER  I.      MONOGVNIA. 

A.  Flowers  having  a  perianth  and  corolla,  without  a  spalha. 

TRADESCAN"TIA.  Calyx  inferior,  3-1.  nv( d  ;  corolla  3-petallod  ;  filament* 
with  jointed  beards  ;  capsules  3-celled,  many  seeded.  6.  13 — (.spider-unit  .  N. 

BER"BKRIS.  MAHONIA.  Calyx  inferior,  6-leaved  ;  petals  C,  fnthSclaodf 
at  the  claw  of  each  ;  style  0  ;  berry  1-celled,  2  or  4-seeded  (stigma  umbilicate ; 
Btaiiu-ns  spring  up  on  being  irritated).  54.  78— (barberry.'*  S. 

CLEO'ME.  Calyx  4-leaved,  inferior ;  petals  4,  ascending  to  one  side  ;  glands 
3,  one  at  each  sinuate  division  of  the  calyx  except  the  lowest ;  stamens  from 
6  to  20,  or  more  ;  capsule  stiped  or  sessile,  silique-like,  often  1-celled,  2-valved. 
Does  not  belong  to  the  class  Tetradynamia  by  its  natural  or  artificial  charac- 
ters. It  has  no  sttuiue,  though  the  capsule  appears  like  a  silique,  until  it  is 
opened.  25.  64— (false  mustard). 

B.  Flowers  having  a  spatha  or  glume,  without  aperiantlt. 

AMARYL"MS.  Corolla  superior,  6-petalled,  unequal ;  filaments  unequal  in 
proportion  or  direction,  declined,  inserted  in  the  throat  of  the  tube.  9.  17  — 
(atamask  lily).  «S. 

AL"L,IUM.    Spatha  many -flowered ;  corolla  inferior,  G^arted,  very  deeply 


CLASS  VI.    ORDER  I.  351 

divided;  divisions  ovate,  spreading;  capsule  3-celled,  3-valved,  many-seeded 
(flowers  inclose  umbels  or  heads).  9.  16-  (leek,  garlic,  onion,  cives).  S. 

HYPOX''IS.  Glume-like  spatha,  2-valved  ;  corolla  superior,  6-parted,  perma- 
nent ;  capsule  elongated,  narrow  at  the  base,  3-celled,  many -seeded  ;  seed 
roundish.  10.  17 — (star-grass).  S. 

PONTEDE'RIA.  Corolla  inferior,  6-cleft,  2-lipped,  with  3  longitudinal  per- 
forations below ;  capsule  with  utricles,  fleshy,  3-celled,  many-seeded  ;  3  sta- 
mens commonly  inserted  on  the  tip,  and  3  on  the  tube  of  the  corolla.  6.  17— 
(pickerel  weed).  5. 

Exotic. 

GALAN"THUS.  Petals  3,  concave,  superior ;  nectaries  (or  inner  petals)  3 
small,  emarginate ;  stigma  simple.  6.  '17 — (snowdrop). 

NARCIS"SUS.  Corolla  bell-form,  spreading,  6-parted  or  six  petalled,  equal, 
superior ;  nectary  bell-form,  1-leafed,  enclosing  the  stamens.  9.  17 — (jonquil, 
daffodil). 

C.  Flowers  having  no  calyx. 

HEMEROCAL"LIS.  Corolla  6-parted,  tubular,  funnel-form ;  stamens  declined ; 
stigma  small,  simple,  somewhat  villose.  10.  16— (day-lilyj. 

ORNITHOG"ALUM.  Corolla  6-petalled,  inferior,  erect,  permanent,  spreading 
above  the  middle  ;  filaments  dilated,  or  subulate,  at  the  base  ;  capsule  round- 
ish, angled,  3  celled  ;  seed  roundish,  naked.  10.  16  — (star  of  Bethlehem).  •$>. 

LI'LIUM.  Corolla  liliaceous,  inferior,  6-petalled  ;  petals  with  a  longitudinal 
line  from  the  middle  to  the  base  ;  stamens  shorter  than  the  style  ;  stigma  undi- 
vided ;  capsule  sub-triangular,  with  the  valves  connected  by  hairs  crossing 
as  in  a  seive.  10.  14 — (lily).  S. 

ERYTHRO'NIUM.  Corolla  liliaceous,  inferior,  6-petalled  ;  petals  reflexed, 
having  two  pores  and  two  tubercle-form  nectaries  at  the  base  of  the  three  in- 
ner alternate  petals ;  capsule  somewhat  stiped  ;  seeds  ovate.  11.  14 — (dog- 
tooth violet,  or  adder  tongue).  .S. 

UVULA'RIA.  Corolla  inferior,  6-petalled,  with  a  nectariferous  hollow  at  the 
base  of  each  petal ;  filaments  very  short,  growing  to  the  anthers  ;  stigmas  re- 
flex ;  capsule  3-cornered,  3-celled,  3-valved ;  with  transverse  partitions  ;  seeds 
many,  sub-globose,  arilled  at  the  hilum.  1 1,  14 — (bell-wort).  S. 

CONVALLA'RIA.  SMILACI'NA.  POLYGONA'TUM.  DRAC^'NA.  Corolla  in- 
ferior, 6-cleft ;  berry  globose,  3-celled,  spotted  before  ripening.  11.  12 — (solo- 
mon  seal).  /S. 

ASPAR'AGUS.  Corplla  inferior,  6-parted,  erect ;  the  three  inner  divisions  re- 
flexed  at  the  apex  :  style  very  short ;  stigmas  3  ;  berry  3-celled,  cells  2-seeded. 
11.  12 — (asparagus). 

Exotic. 

POLYAN'THES.  Corolla  funnel-form,  incurved ;  filaments  inserted  in  the 
throat :  stigma  3-cleft :  germ  within  the  bottom  of  the  corolla.  10.  17 — (tu- 
berose). 

HYACIN"THUS.  Corolla  roundish  or  bell-form,  equal,  6-cleft ;  three  necta- 
riferous pores  at  the  top  of  the  germ  :  stamens  inserted  in  the  middle  of  the 
corolla;  cells  somewhat  2-seeded.  10.  16— (hyacinth). 

TU'LIPA.  Corolla  6-petalled,  liliaceous,  style  0;  stigma  thick  ;  capsule  ob- 
long, 3-sided.  10.  14— (tulip). 

ASPHO'DELUS.    Corolla  6-parted,  spreading  ;   nectary  covering  the  germ 
with  6  valves.     10.  16— (king's  spear,  or  asphodel). 
Southern. 

FRITTILLA'RIA.  Corolla  inferior,  6-petalled,  bell-form,  with  a  nectariferous 
cavity  above  the  claw  of  each  ;  stamens  of  the  length  of  the  corolla  ;  seeds 
flat.  10.  14 — (crown  imperial). 

SCIL/'LA.  Corolla  6-petalled,  spreading,  caducous  ;  filaments  thread-form, 
attached  to  the  base  of  the  petals.  10.  14— (squills). 

1).    Flowers  incomplete  ;    having  perianth-like  calyx  or  corolla  ;   but  neither  in 
perfection 

AC"ORUS.  Receptacle  spadix-like,  cylindric,  covered  with  florets  ;  calyx  6- 
parted,  naked  ;  corolla  0  (or  calyx  none,  corolla  6-parted  or  6-petalled) :  style 
none  :  stigma  a  mere  point ;  capsule  3-celled,  3-seeded.  2.  13— (sweet  flag).  S. 

JUN"CUS.  Glume  or  outer  calyx,  2-valved  ;  perianth  inferior,  6-leaved, 
glume-like,  permanent ;  stigmas  3:  capsules  1  or  2- celled,  3-valved,  many  seed- 
ed ;  seeds  attached  to  a  partition  in  the  middle  of  each  valve.  5.  13— (rush- 
grass,  bulrush).  -S. 


352  CLASS  VH.    CLASS  V1IL 


ORDER  II.      DIGTNIA. 

Exotic. 

ORY'ZA.  Calyi,  glume  2-valved,  1-flowered  ;  coroUa  2-vaIved,  adhering  to 
the  seed.  4.  10— (nee). 

ORDER  III.    TRIGYMA. 

VERA'TRUM.  Polygamous.  Calyx  0 ;  corolla  6-parted,  expanding  ;  seg- 
ments sessile,  without  glands  ;  stamens  inserted  upon  the  receptacle ;  capsules 
3  united, many-seeded.  10.  13.  IS. 

TRIL"LIUM.  Calyx  3-leaved,  inferior,  spreading  ;  corolla  3-petalled  ;  styles 
0  ;  stigmas  3  ;  berry  3-celled,  many  seeded.  11.  12 — (false  wake  robin).  S. 

RU'MEX.  Calyx  3-leayed ;  petals  3,  valve-like,  converging,  (or  calyx  6-leav- 
ed  and  corolla  none) ;  stigmas  many  cleft;  seed  1,  naked.  3-sided.  12.  28 — 
(dock,  field  sorrel).  S. 

Southern. 

CHAM^E'ROPS.  Flowers  polygamous  ;  spatha  compressed  ;  spadix  branch- 
ed ;  perianth  3-parted  ;  corolla  3-petalled  ;  filaments  partly  united  ;  dnlpe  3- 
celled,  2  of  them  often  empty.  The  utaminate  flowers  grow  on  distinct  plants. 
1.  11— (fan  palm). 

ORDF.R   POI.YOYXIA. 

ALIS"MA.  Calyx  3-leaved ;  petals  3  ;  capsules  numerous,  1-seeded.  not 
opening.  5.  13.  S. 

CLASS    VII.       HEPTANDRIA. 

ORDER  I.      MONOGYMA. 

TRIENTA'LIS.  Calyx  7-leaved  ;  corolla  7-parted,  equal,  flat  ;  berry  juice- 
leas,  1-celled,  many  seeded  ;  number  of  stamens  variable.  20.  34 — (chick- 
wintergreen). 

^Es'cuLUS.  Calyx  inflated,  4  or  5-toothed  ;  corolla  4  or  5-petalled,  inserted 
on  the  calyx,  unequal,  pubescent ;  capsule  3-celled  ;  seeds  large,  solitary,  ches- 
nut-form.  23.  66— (horse-chesnut).  S. 

OBDKRIV.      TETHAGTNIA. 

SAURU'RUS.  Calyx  in  an  ament  or  spike,  with  1-flowcred  scales  ;  corolla  0 ; 
anthers  adnate  to  the  filaments  ;  germs  4 ;  berries  or  capsules  4,  1-seeded  ;  sta- 
mens 6,  7,  8,  or  more.  2.  6— (lizard  tail).  S. 

CLASS.  Vin.      OCTANDRIA. 

ORDER  I.     MONOGYMA. 

A.  Flowers  superior. 

OENO'THERA.  Calyx  4-cleft,  tubular,  caducous,  divisions  deflected ;  petals 
4,  inserted  on  the  calyx ;  stigma  4-cleft  ;  capsule  4-celled,  4-valved  ;  seeds  not 
feathered,  affixed  to  a  central  4-sided  columella.  17.  88— (scabish,  or  evening 
primrose).  5. 

EPILO'BIUM.  Calyx  4-cleft,  tubular  ;  corolla  1-petalled ;  capsule  oblong  and 
of  great  length ;  seeds  feathered.  17.  88— (willow-herb).  S. 

OXYLCOC"CUS.  Calyx  superior,  4-toothed  ;  corolla  4-parted,  the  divisions 
•ub-linear,  revolute  ;  filaments  converging  ;  anthers  tubular,  2-parted,  berry 
many  seeded.  18.  51— (cranberry).  S. 

Exotic. 

FUCH"SIA.  Calyx  funnel-form,  coloured,  superior,  caducous  :  petals  (or 
nectaries)  4,  sitting  in  the  throat  of  the  calyx,  alternating  with  its  divisions  : 
stigma  4-sided  capitate  :  berry  oblong,  4-celled  :  seeds  numerous.  17.  88 — 
(ear-drop). 

B.  Flowers  inferior. 

A'CER.  Polygamous.  Sometimes  hexandrous.  Calyx  5-cleft;  corolla  4  or 
5-petalled,  or  wanting  ;  samaras  2,  united  at  the  base,  1-seeded,  often  one  rudi- 
ment of  a  seed.  23.  66— (maple).  5. 

Exotic. 

ERI'CA.  Calyx  4-leaved,  permanent ;  corolla  4-cleft,  permanent ;  filaments 
inserted  on  the  receptacle  ;  anthers  bifid  ;  capsules  membranaceous,  4  to  8- 
celled,  the  partitions  form  the  margins  of  the  valves  :  seeds  many  in  each  c«!L 
18.  51— (heath). 


CLASS  IX.    CLASS  X.  353 

DAPH"NE.  Calyx  0 ;  corolla  4-cleft,  withering,  including  the  stamens ;  drupe 
1-seeded.  31.  25 — (mezereon). 

TROP.E'OLUM.  Calyx  4  or  5-cleft,  coloured,  spurred  ;  petals  4  or  5,  unequal ; 
nuts  leathery,  sulcate.  23.  73 — (nasturtion). 

ORDER    II.      DIGVNIA. 

CHRYSOSPLE'NIUM.  Calyx  superior,  4  or  5-cleft,  coloured  ;  corolla  0 ;  cap- 
sule 2-beaked,  1-celled,  many  seeded.  (The  terminal  flowers  in  the  European 
specimens  are  decandrous,  but  the  plant  is  always  octandrous  in  America.) 
13.  84 — (golden  saxifrage,  water-carpet).  S. 

ORDER   III.      TR1GYMA. 

POLYG"ONUM.  Calyx  inferior,  5-parted,  coloured :  corolla  0  ;  seed  1,  angu- 
lar, covered  with  the  calyx.  Stamens  and  pistils  vary  in  number.  The  calyx 
in  some  species  might  be  taken  for  a  corolla.  12.  28 — (knot-grass,  water-pep- 
per, buckwheat,  heart's-ease).  S. 

CLASS   IX.      ENNEANDRIA. 

ORDER  I.     MONOGYMA. 

LAU'RUS.  Calyx  4  to  6-parted  ;  corolla  0  ;  nectaries  3,  each  a  2-bristled  or 
2-l<fbed  gland,  surrounding  the  germ  :  drupe  1-seeded.  Stamens  vary  from  3 
to  14,  but  they  are  generally  in  two  senss  of  6  each,  with  3  of  the  inner  series 
barren — often  dioecious.  The  calyx  may  be  taken  for  a  corolla.  12.  27 — (sas- 
safras, spice-bush).  *S. 

ORDER  II.      TRIGYNIA. 

Exotic. 

RHE'UM.  Calyx  0  ;  corolla  6-cleit,  permanent  ;  seed  1,  3-sided.  12.  28 — 
(rhubarb). 

CLASS    X.    DECANDRIA. 

ORDER    I.      MONOGYNIA. 

A.  Flowers  polypetalous,  irregular,  (mostly  papilionaceous.} 

CAS"SIA.  Calyx  5-leaved  ;  corolla  5-petalled  :  anthers  3,  lower  ones  beaked, 
and  on  longer  incurved  filaments  :  legume  membranaceous.-  33.  93— (cassia).  S. 

BAPTI'SIA.  PODALYR"IA.  Calyx  4  or  5-cleft  half-way  (sometimes  4-tooth- 
ed)  somewhat  2-lipped  ;  corolla  papilionaceous  ;  wings  of  the  length  of  the 
reflexed  banner ;  stamens  caducous  :  legume  inflated,  smooth,  many-seeded. 
32.  93 — (wild  indigo).  S. 

CER"CIS.    Calyx  5-toothed,  gibbous  below  ;  corolla  papilionaceous,  wings 
longer  than  the  banner ;  keel  2-petalled ;  legume  compressed  ;  seed-bearing 
suture  margined  ;  seeds  obovate.    33.  93 — ( Judas-tree j.  S. 
B.  F'owers  polype'alrnts,  regular, 

PY'ROLA.  Calyx  5-parted  ;  petals  5 ;  styles  longer  than  the  stamens  ;  an- 
thers with  2  pores  at  the  base  before,  and  the  top  after,  the  opening  of  the 
flower  ;  capsule  5-celled,  dehiscent  at  the  angles  near  the  base.  18.  51 — 
(shin-leaf).  -S'. 

CHIMAFH"ILA.  Calyx  5-parted  ;  petals  5  ;  anthers  beaked,  with  2  pores  at 
the  base  before,  and  at  the  top  after,  the  opening  of  the  flower  ;  style  immer- 
sed ;  stigma  thick,  orbiculate  ;  capsule  5-celled,  dehiscent  at  the  angles  near 
the  summit.  18.  51  —  (prince's  pine,  pipsissiwa).  S. 

LEIOPIIYL"LUM.  Calyx  5-parted  ;  corolla  flat,  5-parted  or  5-petalled  ;  sta- 
mens longer  than  the  corolla,  with  lateral  anthers  opening  longitudinally  on 
their  insides  ;  capsule  5-celled,  dehiscent  at  the  top,  5-valved  ;  valves  ovate 
with  margins  inflexed,  remote,  straight ;  columella  sub-ovate,  terete,  rugose  ; 
seeds  small,  not  winged  (leaves  always  glabrous).  18-  50— (sleek  leaf).  5. 

CLETH"RA.  Calyx  5-parted,  permanent ;  corolla  5-petalled  ;  style  perma- 
nent ;  stigma  short,  3:cleft ;  capsule  3-celled,  3-vaIved,  enclosed  by  the  calyx. 
(Spiked).  18.  51— (sweet  pepper-bush).  S. 

Expti((. 

vJRu'TA.  Calyx  5-parted  ;  petals  concave ;  receptacle  surrounded  by  10 
nectariferous  dots  ;  capsule  lobed.  (Petals  sometimes  4,  and  stamens  8).  26, 
81— (rue). 


354  CLASS  X.    ORDER  III. 

Southern. 

DIONJE'A.  Calyx  5-parted  or  5-leaved  ;  petals  5 ;  stigma  fringed  ;  capsule 
roundish,  gibbous,  1 -celled,  many-seeded.  Petals  sometimes  6.  20.  68— 
(Venus'  fly-trap). 

C.  Flowers  monopetaloug. 

ARBU'TUS.  Calyx  inferior,  5-parted,  minute  ;  corolla  ovate,  pellucid  at  the 
base;  border  small,  5-cleft,  revolute  ;  filaments  hairy;  berry  5-celled.  18.  51 
—(bear  berry). 

EpiGyE'A.  Calyx  double,  outer  3-leaved,  inner  5-parted  ;  (or  calyx  5-parted, 
with  3  bracts) ;  corolla  salver-form  ;  border  5-parted,  spreading  ;  tube  villose 
within  ;  capsule  5-celled,  many -seeded  ;  receptacle  5-parted.  18.  51 — 
(trailing  arbutus).  N. 

GAULTHE'RIA.  Calyx  inferior,  double ;  outer  2-leaved,  inner  5-cleft :  (or 
calyx  5-cleft,  with  2  bracts) ;  corolla  ovate  ;  border  small,  5-cleft,  revolute  ; 
filaments  hairy  :  receptacle  10-toothed  ;  (or  with  a  10-pointed  nectary) ;  cap- 
sule 5-celled,  invested  with  the  inner  berry -like  calyx.  18.  51 — (spicy  win;i-r- 
green).  <S. 

VACCI'NIUM.  Calyx  superior,  5-toothed  or  5-parted  ;  corolla  bell  or  pitcher- 
form,  5-cleft,  the  divisions  reflected  ;  filaments  inserted  on  the  germ  with  the 
corolla  ;  berry  4  or  5-celled,  many-seeded.  (The  foreign  species  are  sometimes 
octandrous).  18.  51 — (whortleberry).  5. 

ANDROM"EDA.  LYONIA.  Calyx  5-parted  or  5-toothed,  inferior;  corolla 
ovate,  roundish,  or  sub-cylindiic,  with  a  5-cleft  reflexed  mouth  ;  capsule  5- 
celled,  5-valved,  with  partitions  contrary.  (Stamens  sometimes  8).  18.  51 — 
(white  bush,  leather-leaf).  S. 

KAL/'MIA.  Calyx  5-parted;  corolla  wheel-sal ver-form,  with  10  horns  be- 
neath and  10  cavities  within,  containing  the  anthers  until  the  pollen  is  mature; 
capsule  5-celled,  many-seeded.  18  51V— (laurel).  N. 

RHODODEN"DRON.    Calyx  5-parted  ;  corolla  5-cleft,  somewhat  funnel-form 
and  oblique;  stamens  declining;  varying  from  5  to  10;  anthers  opening  by  2 
terminal  pores  ;  capsules  5-celled,  5-valved,  opening  at  the  top.     18. 50 — (rose- 
bay).  S. 
D.  Flowerg  without  a  calyx :  (or  with  a  coloured  petal  like  one),  whole  plant 

destitute  of  green  herbage. 

1  MONOT"ROPA.  Corolla  confusedly  polypetalous,  permanent  ;  petals  about 
5,  with  nectariferous  hollows  at  their  bases ;  anthers  reniform,  subpeltate, 
1-celled,  giving  out  pollen  by  2  holes  near  the  middle  ;  stigma  orbicular,  not 
bearded  :  capsule  5-celled,  5-valved.  18.  51 — (bird's  nest).  5. 

PTEROS"PORA.  Corolla  5-parted  ;  nectary  ovate,  with  a  5-toothed  reflexed 
margin,  enclosing  the  stamens  ;  anthers  2-celled,  2-bristled,  subpeltate;  fila- 
ments flat;  style  short  ;  stigma  capitate;  capsule  sub-globose,  5-celled.  The 
nectary  is  considered  as  a  corolla,  and  the  corolla  as  a  calyx,  by  some.  But 
these  three  genera  should  be  united  in  one,  by  altering  two  or  three  words  in 
the  definition.  18.  51 — (albany  beach-drops). 

ORDER    II.     DIGYNIA. 

HYDRAN"GEA.  Calyx  5-toothed,  superior:  corolla  5-petalled  ;  capsule  2- 
celled,  2-beaked,  dehiscent  between  tho  beaks.  13.  84— (hydrangea).  Vid. 
Hortensia.  S. 

SAXIFRA'GA.  Calyx  5-parted,  mostly  half  superior  ;  corolla  5-petalled  ; 
capsule  2-celled,  2-beaked,  opening  between  the  beaks  ;  many-seeded.  13. 
84— (saxifrage).  5. 

MITEL"LA.  Calyx  5-cleft,  permanent ;  petals  5-pinnatifid,  inserted  into  the 
calyx  ;  capsule  4-ceIled,  2-valved  ;  valves  equal.  13.  84. 

SAPONA'RIA.  Calyx  inferior,  1-leafed,  tubular,  5-toothed,  without  scales  ; 
petals  5,  with  claws  ;  capsule  oblong,  1-celled.  22.  82 — (soap-wort).  <S. 

DIAN"THUS.  Calyx  inferior,  cylindrical,  1-leafed,  with  4  or  8  scales  at  the 
base  ;  petals  5,  with  claws  ;  capsule  cylindrical,  1-celled,  dehiscent  at  the  top. 
22.  82— -(pink,  sweet-william). 

ORDER   III.      TRIGYNIA. 

SILE'NE.  Calyx  1-leaved,  tubular  or  conic,  5-toothed  ;  petals  5,  with  claws, 
generally  crowned  at  the  orifice ;  capsule  3-celled,  6-toothed,  many-seeded. 
22.  82. 


CLASS  XL    ORDER  L  355 

ARENA'RIA.  Calyx  inferior,  spreading,  5-leaved ;  petals  5,  entire ;  capsule 
1-celled,  many-seeded.  22.  82— (sand wort).  S. 

Exotic, 

HORTEN"SIA.  Flowers  deformed  ;  florets  solitary  :  calyx  5-toothed,  mi- 
nute ;  corolla  5-petalled  ;  the  gay  flowers  composing  the  cyme  have  a  large, 
coloured,  permanent,  petal-like,  5-leaved  calyx,  and  a  minute,  caducous,  4  or 
5-petalled  corolla  ;  stamens  8, 10  or  11.  13.  84 — (changeable  hydrangea). 

ORDER.   V.      PENTAGYNIA. 

SPER"GULA.  Calyx  5-leaved ;  petals  5,  undivided ;  capsule  ovate,  5-celled, 
5-valved.  22.82.  S. 

CERAS"TIUM.  Calyx  5-leaved  ;  petals  5,  2-cleft,  or  emarginate  ;  capsule 
1-celled,  dehiscent  at  top,  10-toothed.  22.82 — (mouse-ear,  chick-weed). -S. 

AGROSTEM"MA.  Calyx  5-cleft,  prismatic  or  tubular  ;  coriaceous  ;  petals  5, 
with  claws ;  border  obtuse,  entire ;  capsule  1-celled,  many-seeded,  opening 
with  5 teeth.  22.  82— (cockle).  S. 

OXA"LIS.  Calyx  permanent,  5-parted  or  5-leaved,  inferior ;  petals  5,  co- 
hering by  the  claws  ;  capsule  5-celled,  5-cornered,  dehiscent  at  the  corners  ; 
seeds  2  or  more  in  a  cell,  covered  with  an  elastic  aril ;  stamens  with  5  shorter, 
outer  ones  adhering  at  their  bases.  This  genus  and  the  Linum  might  be  re- 
moved to  the  class  Monadelphia.  14.  73— (wood  sorrel).  S. 

PENTHO'RUM.  Calyx  5  to  10-cleft;  petals  5  or  0 ;  capsule  5-cuspidate,  5- 
celled ;  cells  divided  transversely,  many-seeded.  13. 83 — (virginian  orpine).  S. 

SE'DUM.  Calyx  inferior,  5-cleft ;  5  petals  ;  5  nectariferous  scales  at  the  base 
of  the  germ  ;  capsule  5.  13.  83 — (live-forever,  or  orpine,  stone-crop). 

Exotic. 

LYCH"NIS.  Calyx  1-leaved,  oblong,  5-toothed ;  petals  5,  with  claws ;  the 
limb  somewhat  2-cleft ;  capsule  1  or  5-celled,  with  a  5-toothed  opening.  22. 
82 — (campion). 

ORDER    X.      DECAGYNIA. 

PHYTOLAC"CA.  Calyx  0 ;  corolla  5-petalled  or  5-cleft,  calyx-like,  inferior; 
berry  10-cell,  10-seeded.  By  some  authors  the  calyx  is  called  a  corolla.  54. 
29— (poke-weed).  S. 

CLASS    XI. 

ORDER    I.      MONOGYNIA. 

CAC"TUS.  Calyx  superior,  many  cleft,  imbricate ;  petals  numerous,  in  many 
series,  the  inner  ones  larger  ;  stigma  many-cleft  ;  berry  1-celled,  many-seeded, 
umbilicate.  13.  85 — (prickly-pear).  S. 

PRU'NUS.  Calyx-cle'ft,  inferior,  bell-form  ;  corolla  5-petalled  :  nut  of  the 
drupe  smooth  with  prominent  seams  at  the  sutures.  36.  92 — (cherry,  plum).  S. 

CU'PHEA.  Calyx  tubular-ventricose,  6  to  12-toothed,  unequal  ;  petals  6, 
mostly  unequal,  inserted  on  the  calyx  :  capsule  1-celle.d,  dehiscent,  longitu- 
dinally with  the  calyx,  follicle-like,  3-sided  ;  seeds  lenticular.  54.  91 — (wax- 
bush).  5. 

Exotic. 

MYR"TUS.  Calyx  superior,  5-cleft  ;  petals  5  ;  berry  2  or  3-celled,  many- 
seeded.  19.  R9— (myrtle). 

AMYG"DALUS.  Calyx  5-cleft  inferior  ;  petals  5  ;  drupe  with  a  nut,  perfora- 
ted with  pores  ;  flowers  sessile.  36.92 — (peach). 

ARM^NI'ACA.  Flowers  sessile ;  calyx  5-cleft,  inferior  ;  petals  5  ;  drupe 
fleshy,  pubescent;  nut  with  one  margin  acute  and  the  other  obtuse,  furrowed 
both  sides.  36.  92— (apricot). 

PU'NICA.    Calyx  5-cleft,  superior ;  petals  5  ;  pome  or  berry  many  celled, 
many-seeded  ;  receptacle  parietal ;  seed  berried.    36.  92 — (pomegranate). 
Southern. 

PniLADEL"piius.  Calyx  4-5-parted,  superior,  top-form ;  corolla  4  or  5- 
petalled  ;  style  4-cleft ;  capsule  4-5-celled,  many-seeded;  seed  arilled.  19.89 
— (false  syringa,  or  mock  orange). 

*  Darlington  proposes  CALYCANDRIA  as  a  substitute  ;  and  to  extend  tho 
class  to  all  stamens  bearing  calyxes. 


356  CJ.A6S  XII.    ORDER  I. 

ORDER    II.   niGYXTA,   TO   ORDKR    V.     PENTAGYNIA  ;    OR    DI-PENTAGYNIA. 

AGRIMO'NIA.  Calyx  inferior,  5-cleft  or  5-toothed,  invested  with  an  outer 
lobed  one  ;  petals  5  ;  stamens  12 ;  seeds  2,  in  the  bottom  of  the  calyx.  35. 
92 — (agrimony).  S. 

CRATJE'GUS.  Calyx  superior,  5-cleft ;  pptals  5  ;  styles  1  to  5  ;  berry  mealy  ; 
seeds  2  to  5,  hony.  36.  92— (thorn-bush).  S. 

AKO'MA.  Calyx  superior,  5-toothed  ;  petals  5  ;  fruit  pomaceoiis  ;  berry  5  or 
10-cellod;  cells  1  or  2-seeded ;  seeds  cartilaginous  36.  92— (shad -flower, 
choak  berry).  .S". 

PYRUS.  Calyx  5-cleft,  superior ;  corolla  5-petalled  ;  pome  5-celled,  many- 
seeded  ;  seed  compressed-ovate.  36.  92— (pear,  apple,  quince).  <S. 

SPIRAEA.  Calyx  5-cleft,  inferior,  spreading ;  corolla  5-petalled  ;  petals  equal, 
roundish  ;  stamens  numerous,  exsert ;  capsules  3  to  12, 2-valved  within,  each  1 
to  3-seeded.  36. 92— (steeple-bush,  hard-hack).  S. 

Exotic. 

MESEMBRYAN'THEMUM.  Calyx  superior,  5-oleft;  petals  numerous,  linear, 
cohering  at  the  base  ;  capsule  fleshy,  many-seeded,  turbinate.  13.  87 — (ice- 
plant). 

ORDKR    XIII.       POLVGYNIA. 

RO'SA.  Calyx  urn-form,  inferior,  5-cleft,  fleshy  ;  contracted  towards  the 
top  ;  petals  5 ;  seeds  numerous,  bristly,  fixed  to  the  sides  of  the  calyx  within. 
A  genus  remarkable  for  the  multiplication  of  its  petals,  by  rich  culture.  35. 
92— (rose).  f>. 

RU'BUS.  Calyx  5-cleft,  inferior ;  corolla  5-potalled  ;  pistils  numerous  ;  berry 
composed  of  many  juicy,  1-seeded  acines,  on  a  dry  receptacle.  35.  92 — (rasp- 
berry, blackberry)  5. 

UALIBAR'DA.  Calyx  5-cleft,  (8-cleft?)  inferior;  corolla  5-petalled;  styles 
long,  cad  uc.,t»t  5  to  8;  berry  composed  of  dry  graqulations.  35.  92— (dry 
strawberry).  <S. 

GE'UM.  Calyx  inferior,  10-cleft,  5  alternate  divisions  smaller;  corolla  5- 
petalled ;  seeds  with  a  bent  awn ;  receptacle  columnar,  villous.  35.  92— 
(avens,  or  herb  bennet).  S. 

POTENTIL'LA.  Calyx  flat,  inferior,  10-cleft;  5  alternate  divisions  smaller  ; 
corolla  5-petalled  ;  petals  roundish  or  obovate  ;  seeds  awnless,  roundish,  ru- 
gose, fixed  to  a  dry,  small  receptacle.  35.  92— (five-finger,  cinquefoil).  »S*. 

FRAUA'RIA.  Calyx  inferior,  lo-d-ft:  5  alternate  divisions  smaller;  corolla 
5-petalled  ;  receptacle  ovate,  berry-like  ;  acines  naked,  immersed  in  the  recep- 
tacle, caducous.  35.  92— (strawberry).  S. 

CLASS    XII.    POLYANDRIA. 

ORDER    I.       MONOGYNIA. 

TI'LIA.     Calyx  5  or  6-parted,  inferior,  caducous  ;  corolla  5  or  6-pctaIled  ; 
capsule  5  or  6-ceJled,  globular,  coriaceous,  dehiscent  at  the  base;  !->•  • 
Often  4  of  the  colls  nre  empty.    37.  79— (bass-wood. )  S. 

PORTULAC"CA.  Calyx  2-cl»ft,  inferior ;  corolla  5-petalled  ;  capsule  1-celhd, 
opening  trail- vcrsly  ;  eolumella  .">,  filiform.  13.  86 — (purslane).  N. 

CHELIDO'VIITM.  Calyx  2-leavcd,  Caducous ;  corolla  4-petallc,l  :  siliijnp-lik«-, 
capsule  1-celled,  2-valved,  linear;  seeds  crested,  many.  27.  62— (celan- 
dine). N. 

SAVGUI VA'RIA  Calyx  caducous,  2-leavod  ;  corolla  about  8-petnllrd  •  stigma 
sossil<-,  t\vinnocJ,  2-groov  •<!  :  capsnlo  pod-like,  ovate,  1-celled,  vJ-vnlvcd,  awnic 
at  ear-h  end;  valves  caducous;  columella  2,  permanent.  27.  62 — (blood- 
root).  N. 

l'onopHYi."LrM      Calyx  3-leaved,  minuto ;  corolla  about  9-prtallr-d  :  sfiirun 
large,  cronafo,  srs^ilr  :   l>erry  l-ce!led,  crownod  with  the  stigma,  lanre,  n. 
seeded;  columella  one-sided.    27.61 — (\\ildmandrade)    <S 

ACT  .«'A  Calyx  4-leaved,  deciduous  ;  petals  4,  often  wanting:  stigma  ses«il«\ 
capitate;  berry  superior,  l-coll.-d,  many-seeded  ;  seeds  hemisplierical.  26.61 
—(Necklace  weed  or  hanoborry).  S. 

MACROTIS.  Calyx  about  4-leaved,  becoming  coloured  before  expanding,  cn- 
ducous;  corolla  many  minuto  petals  very  caducous,  or  wanting;  stigma  sim- 
ple, sessile,  curving  towards  the  gibbous  side  of  the  germ  ;  capsule  2-valved. 


CLASS  XII     ORDER  I  357 

dehiscent  at    its    strait   suture.    26.   61 — (cohosh,  black    snake    root,  bug 
bane).  S. 

SARRACE'NIA.  Calyx  double,  permanent,  3  and  5-leaved  ;  corolla  fl-petalled, 
caducous  ;  stigma  peltate,  permanent,  very  large,  covering  the  stamens  ;  cap- 
sule 5-celled,  5-valved,  many  seeded.  54.  62— (side  saddle  flower).  S. 

NUPHAH.  Calyx  5  or  6-leaved,  petals  many,  minute,  inserted  on  the  recepta- 
cle with  the  stamens,  nectariferous  on  their  backs  ;  stigma  with  a  broad  disk, 
and  radiate  furrows,  sessile ;  pericarp  berry-like,  many  celled,  many  seeded. 
13. 62— (water  lily,  or  yellow  pond  lily).  S. 

NYMPHAE'A.  Calyx  4  to  7-leaved ;  corolla  many  petalled,  petals  about  equalling 
the  length  of  the  calyx  leaves,  attached  to  the  germ  beneath  the  stamens ;  stig- 
ma a  broad  disk,  marked  with  radiated  lines ;  pericarp  berry- like,  many  celled, 
many  seeded.  13.  62— (pond-lily). 

Exotic. 

PAPA'VER.  Calyx  2-leaved,  caducous;  corolla  4-petalled;  stigma  a  broad 
disk,  with  radiating  lines ;  capsule  1-celled,  dehiscent  by  pores  under  the  per- 
manent stigma.  27.  62 — (poppy). 

THE'A.  Calyx  5  or  6-leaved ;  corolla  6  or  9-petalled ;  capsule  3-seeded.  54. 
71— (tea). 

CIT"RUS.  Calyx  5-cleft ;  petals  5,  oblong ;  filaments  dilated  at  the  base,  in 
several  parcels ;  berry  9  to  1 8-celled ;  Polyadelphous.  1 8. 70— (orange,  lemon). 

ORDER  II.      D1GYNIA,  TO  ORDER    V.       PENTAGYN1A,  OR  DI-PENTAGYNIA. 

DELPHI'NUJM.  Calyx  0  ;  corolla  5-petalled,  unequal ;  nectary  2-cleft,  horned 
behind  :  capsules  1  or  3,  pod-like.  By  some  the  corolla  is  considered  as  a  co- 
loured calyx.  26.  61 — (larkspur).  S. 

Acom'ruM.  Calyx  0  ;  petals  5,  upper  one  valved ;  nectaries  2,  hooded,  pe- 
duncled,  recurved :  capsule  3  or  5,  pod-like.  By  some  the  corolla  is  considered 
as  a  coloured  calyx.  26.  61 — (monk's  hood).  S. 

AQBILE'GIA.  Calyx  0  ;  petals  5,  caducous;  nectaries  5,  alternating  with  the 
petals,  and  terminating  downwards  in  a  spur-like  nectary ;  capsules  5,  erect ; 
acuminated  with  the  permanent  styles,  many  seeded.  By  some  the  nectaries 
are  considered  as  petals  and  the  corolla  as  a  coloured  calyx.  26.  61 — (colum- 
bine). 5. 

H  YPER"ic!JM.  Calyx  5-parted ;  divisions  equal,  sub-ovate ;  corolla  5-petalled ; 
filaments  often  united  at  the  base  in  3  or  5  sets ;  styles  2  to  5  ;  capsules  mem- 
branaceous,  roundish,  with  a  number  of  cells  equal  to  the  number  of  styles. 
The  bases  of  the  filaments  are  often  in  groups,  when  they  are  not  united.  20. 
61— (St.  John's  wort).  S. 

Exotic. 

P^O'NIA.  Calyx  5-leaved ;  petals  5  ;  styles  0 ;  stigmas  2  or  3 ;  capsules 
pod-like,  many  seeded.  Remarkable  for  the  multiplication  of  petals  by  rich 
culture.  26.  61— (peony). 

ORDER    XIII.      POLYGYNIA. 

A.  Perianth  none. 

CLEM"ATIS.  Petals  3,  4,  5,  or  6 ;  seeds  compressed ;  styles  permanent,  be- 
coming long  plumose  tails.  (Some  species  are  dioecious.)  26.  61 — (virgin's 
bower).  By  some  the  corolla  is  considered  a  coloured  calyx.  S. 

THALIC"TRUM.  Petals  4  or  5;  filaments  very  long;  seeds  without  tails, 
striate,  terete.  (Some  species  are  dioecious.)  26.61 — (meadow  rue).  The  co- 
rolla is  considered  a  coloured  calyx  by  some.  S. 

ANEMO'NE.  Petals  5  to  9 ;  seeds  numerous,  naked.  26.  61— (wind-flower, 
rue  anemone).  The  corolla  is  considered  a  calyx  by  some.  S. 

COP"TIS.  Petals  5  or  6, caducous ;  nectaries  small,  5  or  6,  cowled  ;  capsules 
oblong,  5  to  8,  stiped,  stellate,  beaked,  many  seeded.  26.  61— (gold  thread). 
By  some  the  nectaries  are  mistaken  for  corollas,  and  the  corollas  for  calyxes. 

CAL"THA.  Petals  5  to  9,  orbicular;  capsules  numerous  (5  to  10),  many 
seeded,  compressed  ;  1-celied,  spreading ;  nectaries  0.  (Pistils  variable  in  num- 
ber.) 26. 61 — (American  cowslip).  S.  By  some  the  corolla  is  mistaken  for  a 
coloured  calyx. 

Exotic. 

HELLEB"ORUS.  Petals  5  or  more;  nectary  2-lipped,  tubular;  capsules  5  or 
6 ;  many  seeded,  erectish,  compressed.  26. 61— (hellebore). 


358  CLASS  XIII.    ORDER  I. 

B.  Having  a  perianth. 

MAGNO'LIA.  Calyx  3-leaved ;  corolla  b  to  9-petalled ;  capsules  numerous, 
imbricate  on  a  strobile-like  spike,  2-valved ;  seeds  arilled,  pendulous  or  long 
cords ;  berry-like.  52.  75 — (magnolia,  or  beaver  tree).  S. 

LIRIODEN"DRON.  Calyx  3-leaved ;  corolla  6  or  9-petalled,  liliaceous ;  seeds 
in  a  sub-lnnceolate  samara,  imbricate  on  a  strobile-like  spike.  52.  75— (tulip 
tree,  or  wh  ite  wood ) .  S. 

HEPAT"ICA.  Calyx  3-leaved,  a  little  distance  below  the  corolla,  entire ;  pe- 
tals 6  to  9 ;  seeds  without  tails.  26.  61—  (liverleaf).  flT.-" 

RANCN"CULUS.  Calyx  5-leaved;  petals  5,  with  claws,  and  a  nectariferous 
pore  or  scale  on  the  inside  of  each  ;  seeds  without  tails,  naked,  numerous.  2(5. 
61 — (crow-foot).  Some  mistake  an  extra  tegument  for  a  capsule.  N. 

Exotic. 

SKMPERVI'VUM.  Calyx  9  to  12-parted  ;  petals  8  to  12,  capsules  12,  many 
seeded.  (Stamens  16  or  20.)  13. 83— (house-leek). 

ADO'MS.  Calyx  4-5-leaved ;  petals  5  or  more,  without  nectariferous  pores ; 
seeds  awnless.  26.  61 — (pheasant's  eye). 

CLASS  XIII.       DIDYNAMIA. 

ORDER   I.      GTMNOSPERMIA. 

A.  Calyx  5-cleft,  with  the  divisions,  or  teeth,  nearly  equal. 
TEU'CRIUM.    Corolla  deep  cleft  on  the  upper  side,  and  without  an  upper  lip, 
lower  lip  3-cleft,  the  middle  division  rounded,  stamens  and  pistils  incurved  ; 
stamens  exsert  through  the  cleavage  on  the  upper  side  of  the  corolla.    42.  39 — 
(wood  sage,  wild  germander).    S. 

MEN"THA.  Corolla  nearly  equal,  4-lobed ;  broadest  division  emarginate 
stamens  erect,  distant.  42. 39 — (spearmint,  peppermint).  .V. 

ISAN"THUS.  Calyx  somewhat  bell-form ;  corolla  5-parted ;  tube*  straight, 
narrow;  divisions  ovate,  equal ;  stamens  neatly  equal;  stigma  linear,  recurved. 
42.  39 — (blue  gentian). 

HEDEO'MA.  Calyx  2-lipped,  gibbose  at  the  base  ;  upper  lip  with  3  lanreo- 
Inte  teeth ;  lower  lip  wilh  two  subulate  ones ;  corolla  ringcnt ;  2  short  stamens 
barren.  42.  39 — (pennyroyal).  S. 

NEP'ETA.  Calyx  dry,  Mriate;  corolla  with  a  longish  tube;  under  lip  with 
the  middle  division  crenate,  throat  with  a  reflected  margin;  stamens  approxi- 
mate. 42.39— (catmint).  S. 

LA'MIUM.  Upper  lip  of  the  corol  vaulted,  entire ;  lower  lip  2-lobed,  toothed 
on  each  side.  42  39.  S. 

STV<MI"VS.  Calyx  with  its  divisions  awned  :  corolla  with  the  upper  lip 
vaulted  ;  the  lower  lip  3-lobed  ;  the  middle  divisions  largest,  emarginate ;  the 
lateral  divisions  reflexed  ;  stamens  reflexed  towards  the  sides  after  discharging 
the  pollen.  42.  39. — (wound-wort,  hedge  nettle).  S. 

LEOXIT'RUS.  Calyx  5-anglpd,  5-toothed  ;  corolla  with  thn  upper  lip  erect, 
villose,  flat,  entire  ;  lower  lip  3-parted ;  middle  division;  undivided  lobes  of  the 
anthers  parallel,  having  shining  dots.  42.39 — (mother- wort).  N. 

VERBE'XA.    Calyx  with  one'of  the  teeth  truncate ;  corolla  funnel-form,  with 

n  mfved  tube ;  border  o-cleft,  nearly  equal ;  seeds  2  or  four,  with  an  extra 

vanishing  tegument;  sometimes  2  stamens  are  barren.     42.  39— (vervain).     N. 

MARRU'BIDM.    Calyx  salver-form,  rigid,  marked  with  10  lines;  corolla  with 

the  upper  lip  deleft,  linear,  straight.    42.  39 — (horehound).     N. 

UI.ECHO'MA.  Calyx  .r-cleft ;  corolla  double  the  length  of  the  calyx;  upper 
Iip2-cleft;  lower  lip  3-cleft,  with  the  middle  segment  emarginate;  each  pair  of 
anthers  approaching  so  af  to  exhibit  the  form  of  a  cross.  42.  39 — (ground  ivy. 
gill-overground). 

PYC\AN"THKMKM.  Involucrum  bract-like,  mnny  leaved  :  under  small  heads 
of  flowers;  calyx  tubular,  striato;  corolla  with  the  upper  lip  sub-entire ;  lower 
lip  3-cleft;  middle  segment  longer;  stamens  distant,  nearly  equal ;  cells  of  the 
anthers  parallel.  42.  39 — (mountain  mint).  /S. 

Exotic. 

LAVAN"DULA.  Calyx  ovate,  sub-dentate :  bracts  under  studded ;  corolla  re- 
supinate ;  stamens  in  the  tube.  42.  39 — (lavender). 

SATURE'JA.  Calyx  tubular,  striate  ;  corolla  with  divisions  nearly  equal ; 
stamens  distant.  42.  39 — (savory). 


CLASS  XIII.    ORDER  II.  359 

MOLUCCEL"LA.  Calyx  bell-forra,  much  larger  than  the  corol,  spinose.  42 
39— (shell-flower). 

B.  Calyx  2-lipped. 

ORI'GANUM.  Calyxes  collected  into  a  4-sided  strobile-like  cone,  with  broad 
intervening  bracts  ;  corolla  with  the  upper  lip  erect,  flat,  straight,  emarginate  ; 
under  lip  3-parted,  divisions  nearly  equal.  42.  39 — (marjoram). 

PRUNEL"LA.  Calyx  with  the  upper  lip  dilated  ;  filaments  2-forked,  with  an 
anther  on  one  of  the  points ;  stigma  2-cleft.  42.  39 — (self-heal,  or  heal-all).  S. 

SCUTELLA'RIA.  Calyx  with  an  entire  mouth,  which  is  closed  with  a  helmet- 
form  lid  after  the  corolla  falls  out;  tube  of  the  corolla  bent.  42.  39 — (scull- 
cap).  £. 

TRICHOSTE'MA.  Calyx  resupinate  ;  corolla  with  the  upper  lip  falcate ;  and 
the  under  lip  3-parted,  with  the  middle  division  small,  oblong ;  filaments  very 
long-exsert,  incurved  or  coiled.  42.  39 — (blue  curls).  S. 

Exotic. 

THY"MUS.  Calyx  sub-campanulate,  with  the  throat  closed  with  hairs ;  co- 
rolla with  the  upper  lip  flat,  emarginate  ;  lower  lip  longer.  42.  39 — (thyme). 

MELIS"SA.  Calyx  dry,  flattish  above,  with  the  uppei^lip  sub-fastigiate ;  co- 
rolla with  the  upper  lip  somewhat  vaulted,  3-cleft ;  lower  lip  with  the  middle 
lobe  cordate.  42.  39 — (balm). 

ORDER    II.      ANGIOSPERMIA. 

A.  Calyx  2-cleft  or  2-leuved. 

OBOLA'RIA.  Calyx  bract-like  ;  corolla  4-cleft,  bell-form;  capsule  1  -celled, 
2-valved,  many  seeded;  stamens  from  the  divisions  of  the  corolla  nearly  equal; 
stigma  2-cleft  or  emarginate.  40.  35 — (penny-wort).  S. 

B.  Calyx  deleft. 

EUCHRO'MA.  Calyx  inflated,  2  or  4-cleft ;  corolla  2-lipped  ;  upper  lip  long, 
linear,  embracing  the  style  and  stamens  ;  anthers  linear,  with  unequal  lobes, 
cohering  so  as  to  iorm  an  oblong  disk ;  capsule  ovate,  compressed,  2-celled ; 
seeds  numerous,  surrounded  with  an  inflated  membrane.  40.  40.  S. 

BAR"TSIA.  Euchroma?  Calyx  lobed,  emarginate,  coloured ;  corolla  less 
than  calyx ;  upper  lip  longest,  concave,  entire ;  lower  lip  3-cleit  and  reflexed  ; 
anthers  with  equal  lobes,  not  cohering ;  capsule  2-celled  ;  seed  angled.  40.  35 
—  painted  cup) 

MELAM"PYRUM.  Corolla  with  the  upper  lip  compressed,  the  margin  folded 
back ;  lower  lip  grooved,  3-cleft,  sub-equal ;  capsule  2-celled,  oblique,  dehis- 
cent on  one  side  ;  seeds  2,  cyliudric,  gibbous,  cartilaginous  and  smooth.  40. 
35 —  (co  w- wheat) .  /S. 

Southern. 

EUPHRA'SIA.  Calyx  cylindric ;  corolla  2-lipped ;  the  upper  lip  2-cleft ;  lower 
lip  3-lobed,  with  the  divisions  2-cleft ;  lower  anthers  lobed,  spinose.  40.  35 — 
(eye-bright). 

C.  Calyx  4  or  5-cleft,  or  5-toothed;  plant  without  green  herbage. 
OROBAN"CHE.    Corol  ringent,  capsule  ovate,  acute,  1-celled ;  seeds  nume- 
rous :  a  gland  beneath  the  base  of  the  germ.'    40.  35.     S. 

EPIPH"EGUS.     Polygamous.    Calyx  abbreviated,  5-toothed  ;  corolla  of  the 
barren  flowers  ringent,  compressed,  4-cleft ;  lower  lip  flat ;  of  the  fertile  flowers 
minute,  4-toothed,  caducous ;  capsule  truncate,  oblique,   1-celled,  imperfectly 
2-valved,  opening  on  one  side.     40-  35 — (beech  drops,  cancer  root). 
D.  Calyx  5-leaved  or  5-cleft;  plant  with  green  herbage. 

SCROPHUI.A'KIA.  Corol  sub-globose,  resupinate,  shortly  bi-labiate,  with  an 
internal  intermediate  scale ;  capsule  2-celled.  40.  40.  S. 

BIGNO'NIA  Calyx  5-toothed,  cup-form,  sub-coriaceous;  corolla  bell-form, 
5-lobed,  ventricose  beneath ;  capsule  silique-like,  2-celled ;  seed-membrane 
winged.  40. 4Q—  (trumpet  flower).  S. 

BUCHM./KA.  Calyx  5-toothed  ;  corolla  with  a  slender  tube,  and  the  limb  in  5 
equal  divisions,  the  lobes  cordate ;  capsule  2-celled.  40.35 — (blue  hearts).  S. 
ANTIRHHI'NUM.  Calyx  5-leaved  or  deeply  5-parted ;  the  two  lower  divisions 
remote;  corolla  personate  or  ringent,  spurred,  or  with  a  prominent  base;  the 
throat  closed  with  a  prominent  palate ;  capsule  ovate,  2-valved,  dehiscent  at  the 
apex,  with  reflexed  teeth.  40.40 — (snap-dragon,  toad-flax).  S.  \ 

GhRAH"niA.  Calyx  5-cleft  or  5-toothed  ;  corolla  sub-campanulate,  unequally 
5-lobed  ;  segments  mostly  rounded ;  capsule  2-celled,  dehiscent  at  the  top.  40. 
40— (false  foxglove).  /S. 


360  CLASS  XIV.    ORDER  I. 

PEDICULA'HIS.  Calyx  ventricose,  5-cleft  or  obliquely  truncate ;  corolla  rin- 
gent ;  upper  lip  arched,  emarginate  and  compressed  ;  capsule  2-celled,  mucro- 
nate,  oblique ;  seeds  numerous,  angular,  coated.  (Leaves  many  cleft.)  40.  35 
— (louse wort,  high  heal-all).  S. 

MI'MULUS.  Calyx  prismatic,  5-toothed ;  corolla  ringent;  upper  lip  folded 
back  upon  its  sides,  lower  lip  with  a  prominent  palate ;  stigma  thick,  2-cleft ; 
capsule  2-celled,  many  seeded  ;  seeds  minute.  40.40 — (monkey -flower).  S. 

CHF.LO'NI:.  Calyx  5-cleft  or  5-leaved,  3-bracted ;  corolla  ringent,  inflated ; 
the  upper  lip  emarginate-obtuse,  under  lip  slightly  3-cleft ;  the  rudiment  of  a 
smooth  filament  between,  and  shorter  than  the  two  tallest  stamens  ;  anthers 
woolly ;  capsule  2-celled,  2-valved ;  seeds  with  membranous  margins.  40.  45 
— (snake-head).  5. 

PENTSTE'MON.  Calyx  5-cleft  or  5-leaved  ;  corolla  ringent,  inflated  ;  the  ru- 
diment of  a  bearded  filament  between,  and  longer  than  the  two  tallest  stamens  ; 
anthers  smooth  ;  capsule  2-celled,  2-valved,  ovate  ;  seeds  numerous,  angular. 
(Taken  from  the  last  genus).  40.45 — (beard  tongue).  S. 

Exotic. 

DIGITA'LIS.  Calyx  5-parted ;  corolla  bell-form,  ventricose,  5-cleft ;  stigma 
simple  or  bilamellate  ;  capsule  ovate,  2-celled.— (Flowers  racemed).  40.  40— 
(foxglove)- 

CLASS    XIV.    TETRADYNAMIA. 

ORDER    I.      SII.ICULOSA. 

THLAS"PI.  Calyx  spreading,  equal  at  the  base  ;  filaments  distinct,  without 
teeth;  silicle  compressed,  emarginate,  obcord  ate,  many-seeded;  valves  resem- 
ble two  boats  with  the  keels  outward.  39.  63 — (shepherd's  purse).  S. 

LEPID"IWM.  Calyx  spread  ing  ;  corolla  regular;  silicle  emarginate,  cordate 
or  oval  ;  cells  1-seeded  ;  valves  carinate,  dehiscent ;  partition  contrary-  Co- 
tyledons incumbent.  39.  6'^ — (pepper- grass).  S. 

COCHLEA'RIA.  Silicle  thick,  rugose,  many-seed,  2-valved  ;  valves  gibbous, 
obtuse  :  partition  nearly  parallel  to  the  valves.  39.  63 — (horse-radish,  water- 
radish). 

Exotic. 

LUWA'RIA.  Silicle  entire,  oval,  flat-compressed,  pedicelled  ;  valves  equal- 
ling the  partition,  parallel,  flat ;  calyx  consists  of  coloured  sack-like  leafets. 
39.  63— (honesty,  or  satin-flower). 

ORDER    II.      BILIQU08A. 

DENTA'RIA.  Silique  lanceolate  ;  valves  flat,  nerveless,  often  opening  elas- 
tically :  receptacles  not  winged  :  funicule  dilated  :  seeds  in  a  single  series, 
ovate,  not  margined  ;  cotyledons  accumbent  39.  63 — (trickle-root.)  S. 

CARDAMINE.  Calyx  leaves  spreading  but  little :  stigma  entire :  a  single 
gland  between  each  of  the  short  stamens  and  the  calyx  ;  silique  with  Truncate 
margins,  linear,  long,  bursting  elastically  with  revolute  valves,  narrower,  but 
equalling  the  length  of  the  partitions  ;  seed  with  a  slender  funicule,  not  mar- 
gined. 39.  63 — (American  water-cress).  -S. 

AR"ABIS  Glands  4,  one  within  each  leafet  of  the  erect  calyx,  of  the  size  of 
the  reflected  scale  ;  silique  compressed,  torulose,  sub- divaricate;  valves  flat, 
1-nerved  :  seeds  arranged  in  a  single  series.  Cotyledons  accumbent.  39.  63 
— (wall-cress).  5 

ERYS"IMUM.  Nasturtium.  Calyx  and  corolla  spreading :  silique  bursting, 
not  elastically  ;  beak  short  and  terete  valves  nerveless,  not  keeled,  straitish, 
concave.  Cotyledons  accumbent.  39.  63 — (English  water-cress,  water- 
radish).  S 

CHKIRAN'THUS.  Calyx  closed,  two  of  the  leafets  gibbous  at  the  base  ;  petals 
dilated ;  silique,  when  young  with  a  glandular  tooth  each  side ;  stigma  2- 
lobed ;  seed  flat,  sometimes  margined.  39.  63 — (stock-july-flower,  wall- 
flower). & 

SINA'PIS-  Calyx  spreading ;  corolla  with  strnit  claws  ;  glands  between  the 
short  stamens  and  the  pistil,  and  between  the  long  stamens  and  the  calyx ; 
partition  extending  beyond  the  valves  of  the  silique,  ensiform  ;  seeds  in  a  sin- 
gle series.  Cotyledons  conduplicate.  39.  63 — (mustard). 

RAPHA'NUS.  Calyx  closed,  setose  ;  silique  torose,  terete,  not  opening  by 
valves,  1  or  2-celled  ;  glands  between  the  short  stamens  and  pistil,  and  be- 
\ 


CLASS  XV.  ORDER  X.  361 

tween  the  long  stamens  and  the  calyx.    Cotyledons  conduplicate.    39.   63 — 
(radish). 

Exotic. 

BRAS"SICA.  Calyx  erect,  converging;  partition  extending  beyondf  the 
valves  of  the  silique  ;  seed  globose  ;  glands  between  the  short  stamens  and 
pistil,  and  between  the  long  stamens  and  calyx.  39.  63 — (cabbage,  turnip). 

CLASS    XV.    MONADELPHIA. 

ORDER    III.     TRIANDRIA. 

SISIRYN"CHIUM.  Spatha  2-leaved  ;  perianth  0  ;  corolla  superior,  6-cleft  or 
6-petalled,  tubular ;  style  1 ;  stigma  3-cleft ;  capsule  3-celled.  6.  18 — (blue- 
eyed  grass).  /S. 

ORDER   V.      PENTANDRIA. 

PASSIFLO'RA.'  Calyx  5-parted,  coloured  ;  corolla  5-petalled,  on  the  calyx  ; 
nectary,  a  triple  filamentous  crown  within  the  petals  :  gourd-like  berry,  pedi- 
celled.  34.  98— (passion-flower).  S. 

Exotic. 

ERO'DIUM.  Calyx  5-leaved ;  corolla  5-petalled ;  nectariferous  scales  5, 
alternating  with  the  filaments  ;  arils  5,  1-seeded,  awned  ;  beaked  at  the  base 
of  the  receptacle  ;  awn  spiral,  bearded  within.  (Taken  from  geranium).  14. 
33— (stork's  bill). 

ORDER  VII.      HEPTANDRIA. 

Exotic. 

PELARGO'NIUM.  Calyx  5-parted,  upper  division  broader,  ending  in  a  capil- 
lary nectariferous  tube  ;  corolla  5-petalled,  irregular  ;  the  two  upper  petals 
usually  broader,  with  coloured  veins  ;  filaments  10,  3  of  them  usually  without 
anthers  ;  arils  f>,  each  1-seeded,  awned  ;  some  of  the  awns  spiral.  14.  73 — 
(stork  geranium). 

ORDER   X.      DECANDRIA. 

GERA'NIUM.     Calyx  5-leaved  ;    corolla  5-petalled,    regular ;    nectariferous 
glands  5,  adhering  to  the  base  of  the  5  alternating  long  filaments  ;  arils  5,  1- 
seeded,  awned,  beaked  at  the  elongated  top  of  the  receptacle  ;  awn  naked  or 
smooth  within,  straight.     14.  73— (cranebill,  false  crowfoot,  herb-robert).  S. 
Southern. 

ACA'CIA.  MIMOSA.  Polygamous.  Calyx  tubular,  5-toothed ;  petals  5  ; 
stamens  5  to  10,  exsert ;  pod  1-celled,  2-valved.  33.  93. 

ORDER    XII.      POLYANDRIA. 

SI'DA.  Calyx  simple,  angular,  5-cleft ;  style  many-parted  ;  capsules  many, 
arranged  circularly,  1-celled,  1  or  3-seeded.  (Pedicel  articulated  under  the 
apex).  37.  74 — (indian  mallow?).  S. 

ALTH^'A.  Calyx  double,  outer  one  6  or  9-cleft ;  capsules  many,  arranged 
circularly,  1-seeded.  37.  74 — (Hollyhock). 

MAL"VA.  Calyx  double,  outer  one  3-leaved,  inner  one  5-cleft ;  capsules 
many,  arranged  circularly,  I-celled,  1-seeded.  37.  74— (mallows).  S. 

HIBIS"CUS.  Calax  double,  outer  one  many-leaved;  inner  one  about 
5-cleft  ;  stigmas  5  ;  capsule  5  or  10-celled,  many  seeded.  37.  74 — (marsh 
mallows.)  S. 

Exotic. 

GOSSYP"IUM.  Calyx  double,  outer  one  3-cleft ;  capsule  4-celled  ;  seeds  in- 
volved in  wool.  37.  74— (cotton). 

CLASS    XVI.    DIADELPHIA, 

OKDEB   5.    PENTANDRIA,   TO   ORDFR   VIII.      OCTANDRIA,    OR   PENT-OCTANDRIA. 

CORYDA'LIS.  DICLYTRA.  Calyx  2-leaved  ;  corolla  ringent,  1  or  2-spurred 
at  the  base  :  filaments  2,  membranaceous,  each  with  3  anthers;  capsules 
silique-like,  2-valved,  compressed,  many-seeded.  In  some  species  the  stamens 
are  separate,  with  broad  membranaceous  bases.  24.  62 — (colic-weed).  <S. 

FUMA'RIA.    Calyx  2-leaved,  caducous :  corolla  irregular  :  spurred  or  gib- 

31 


362  CLASS  XVI.  ORDER  X. 

boils  at  the  base  of  one  petal ;  filament*  2,  each  with  three  anthers ;  capsule 
or  silicle  drupe-like,  1-celled,  1-seeded,  not  opening  by  valves:  seeds  affixed 
to  the  side  of  the  cell.  24.  62— (fumitory).  5. 

POLYGA'LA.  Calyx  5-leaved,  peimanent,  unequal,  2  of  the  leafets  wing-like, 
larger,  coloured ;  corolla  irregular  (or  rather,  calyx  3-leaved,  corolla  imperfect- 
ly papilionaceous)  :  capsule  obcordate,  2-celled,  2-valved.  Keel  of  the  corolla 
sometimes  appendaged  :  seeds  hairy.  33.  3i>— (snake  root,  milk-wort,  low 
centaury,  mountain  flax).  S. 

ORDER    X.      DECANDRIA. 

A.  Legume  without  transverse  divisions  or  partitions ;  seeds  numerous. 
(Stigma  pubescent.) 

PI'SOM.  Calyx  with  the  divisions  leaf-like,  about  equal :  banner  protruding 
2  folds  :  style  compressed,  cahnate,  villose  above  :  legume  without  down  at 
the  suture  32.  93—  (pea). 

LA'THYRUS.  Calyx  with  the  two  upper  divisions  shorter :  «tyle  flat,  villose 
above,  broader  towards  the  top.  (Stems  mostly  winged,  leafets  2  or  more, 
terminated  by  a  divided  tendril).  82  93 — (sweet  pea).  -S. 

VJC'IA.  Calyx  emarginate  above,  2-toothed  ;  3  straight  long  teeth  below; 
banner  emarginate  ;  style  bearded  transversely  on  the  lower  side  beneath  the 
stigma.  32.  93— (vetch).  S. 

(Stigma  notpube  -cut.) 

PHASE'OLUS.  Keel,  stamens  and  style  spirally  twisted  together :  legume 
compressed,  falcate;  seeds  sub-compressed,  renifrom  32.  93— -(bean).  •$. 

STROPIIOSTY'LKS.  GLYCINK.  Keel,  stamens  and  style  spirally  twisted  to- 
gether :  legume  terete,  with  a  longitudinal  half-breadth  partition,  attached  to 
one  edge:  seed  reniform,sub-cylindric.  32  93 — (wild  bean).  S. 

A'PIOS.  GLYCI'NE.  Calyx  somewhat  2-lipped,  truncate,  1-toothed :  keel  of 
the  corolla  falcate,  bending  back  the  apex  of  the  banner  :  germ  sheathed  at  the 
base:  legume  coriaceous,  many -seeded  32.93— (ground-nut).  S. 

AMPHJCAR"PA.  Calyx  bell-form,  4-toothed,  obtuse  and  naked  at  the  base  : 
petals  oblong,  banner  broader,  close-pressed  upon  other  petals,  sub-sessile : 
fctigma  capitate:  legume  flat,  stiped  ;  seeds  2  to  4.  32.  93 -(wild  bean- 
vine).  <S. 

ROBI'NIA.  Calyx  small,  bell-form,  4-cleft,  upper  division  2-parted  :  banner 
large,  reflexed,  roundish :  legume  compressed,  elongated,  many-seeded  :  seeds 
compressed,  small.  32. 93 — (locust  tree).  -S. 

Exotic. 

COLU'TEA.    Calyx  5-cleft  with  the  keel  obtuse:  style  bearded  on  its  back 
through  its  whole  length  :  legume  inflated,  opening  on  the  upper  suture  at  the 
base.     32.  93  -  (bladder  senna,  bush  locust). 
Southern. 

INDIGOK"ERA.  Calyx  spreading:  keel  with  a  subulate  spur  both  sides  ;  le- 
gume  linear,  small,  terete  or  quadrangular.  22.  9£— (indigo). 

B.  Legume  without  transverse  divisions  or  partitions ;  sttdsfew  or  single. 

MELILO'TUS.  Flowers  recemed:  calyx  tubular,  5-toothed  ;  keel  simple, 
shorter  than  the  wings  and  banner  :  legume  rugose,  longer  than  the  calyx,  or 
about  as  long.  (Taken  from  the  trifolium).  32.  93— (melilot  clover).  5. 

TRIFO'LIDM.    Flowers  sub-capitate :    legume  included  in  the  ealyx,  not 
opening  by  valves,  1  to  4-seeded.  (Leaves  always  ternate).  32. 93— (clover).  & 
C.  Fruit  or  lament  in  several  joints,  or  in  a  single-seeded  piece. 

HEDYS"ARUM.  Calyx  5-cleft  :  keel  of  corolla  transversely  obtuse  ;  loment 
many-jointed;  joints  1 -seeded,  truncate,  compressed,  generally  hispid.  Plant.- 
mostly  with  ternate  leaves.  32.  93 — (bush clover).  S. 

Exotic.  » 

CORONIL'LA.    Calyx  2-lipped  :  petals  withplaws:  loment  teretish,  jointed  : 
flowers  in  umbels  ;  seeds  generally  cylindric.    32.  93 — (coronilla). 
D.  Stamens  united  in  one  set. 

AMOR"PHA.  Calyx  somewhat  bell-form,  4  or  5-cleft  :  banner  ovate,  con- 
cave :  wings  and  keel  0  ;  legume  1  or  2-seeded,  falcate.  32.  93 — (false  in- 
digo). S. 

LUPI'NUS.  Calyx  2-lipped  :  anthers,  5  oblong  and  5  roundish  ;  legume  co- 
riaceous, torulose.  32.  93 — (lupine).  S. 

CROTALA'RIA.    Corolla  with  the  banner  cordate,  large  keel  acuminate,  the 


CLASS  XVII.    ORDER  II.  363 

membrane  formed  by  the  united  filament,  has  a  fissure  on  the  back :  style 
curved  ;  legume  pedicelled, turgid.     32.  93— (rattle box).  S. 


CLASS    XVII.    SYNGENESIA. 


ORDER.   I-      POLYGAMIA 

A.  Florets  ligulate. 

CICHO'RIUM.  Calyx  calycled  ;  egret  plumose,  sessile,  unequal  (Torrey)  ; 
many-leaved,  chaffy  (Persoon)  ;  receptacle  somewhat  chaffy.  49.  53— 
'succory  or  endive). 

LEON'TODON.  Calyx  double,  imbricate,  with  flexible  leafets  ;  receptacle 
naked;  egret  stiped.  49.  53—  (dandelion).  S. 

PRENAN"THES.  Florets  from  5  to  20,  in  a  simple  series  (or  in  one  circular 
row)  ;  calyx  calycled  ;  receptacle  naked  ;  egret  simple,  sub-sessile.  49.  53— 
f  white  lettuce).  S. 

LACTU'CA.  Calyx  imbricate,  cylindric,  with  the  margin  of  the  scales  mem- 
branaceous  ;  receptacle  naked  ;  egret  simple,  stiped  ;  seed  smooth.  49,  ^3— 
'lettuce).  "<S. 

HIERAC"IUM.  Calyx  imbricate,  ovate  ;  egret  simple,  sessile  ;  receptacle 
naked,  punctate,  or  sub-pilose.  (From  white  becoming  yellowish).  49.53— 
(hawk  -weed;.  S. 

Exotic. 

TRACOPO'GON.  Calyx  simple,  many  -leaved  :  receptacle  naked  ;  egret  plu- 
mose and  stiped.  49.  53—  (goats-beard,  vegetable  oyster)  . 

B.  Flowers  tubulous  :  flower  capitate.  • 

ARC"TIUM.  Calyx  globose,  with  scales  hooked  at  the  apex  :  egret-chaff- 
bristly  :  receptacle  chaffy.  49.  54  —  (burdock).  S. 

CNI'CUS.  Calyx  swelling,  imbricate,  with  prickly  scales  ;  receptacle  vil- 
lose  ;  egret  caducous,  plumose.  49.  54  —  (thistle.)  <S. 

CAR"DUUS.  Calyx  ovate,  imbricate  with  prickly  scales  ;  receptacle  Villose  ; 
egret  pilose.  49.  54  —  (comb-tooth  thistle). 

Exotic. 

CAR"THAMUS.  Calyx  ovate,  imbricate  with  scales,  pvatish  leafy  at  the 
apex  ;  egret  chaff  hairy  or  none  ;  receptacle  chaff  bristly.  49.  54  —  (false 
saffron). 

CYN"ARA.  Receptacle  bristly  ;  calyx  dilated,  imbricate',  scales  with  fleshy 
bases,  emarginate  and  pointed  ;  egret  plumose,  sessile.  49.  54  —  (garden  ar- 
tichoke). 

C.  Florets  tubulous  ;  flower  discoid. 

EUPATO'RIUM.  Calyx  imbricated  (rarely  simple)  oblong  ;  style  long  cloven 
half  way  down  :  egret  pilose,  scabrous,  or  rough  papillose  ;  receptacle  naked  ; 
seed  smooth  and  glandular,  5  striate.  49.  55  —  (boneset,  thoroughwort,  joe- 
pye).  .S'. 

MIKA'NIA.  Calyx  4-6  leaved,  4-6  flowered  ;  receptacle  naked  ;  egret  pilose. 
49.  55.  S. 

ORDER  II.      POI.YGAMIA  SFPERFLUA. 

A.  Flowers  discoid  ;  the  ray-florets  being  obsolete. 

TANACE'TUM.  Calyx  imbricate,  hemispheric  ;  scales  acuminate  ;  rays  obso- 
lete, 3  cleft  ;  egret  somewhat  marginal  ;  receptacle  naked.  (Flowers  corymbed.) 
19  55—  (tansey). 

ARTEMI'SIA.  Calyx  imbricate,  ovate,  with  scales  rounded,  converging; 
ray  florets  subulate  ;  egret  0  ;  receptacle  somewhat  villose,  or  nakedish. 
'Flowers  mostly  rounded).  49.55  —  (wormwood,  southern-wood).  <S. 

GNAPHA'LIUM.  Calyx  imbricate  with  the  marginal  scales  rounded,  scafious, 
shortish,  glossy,  coloured  ;  receptacle  naked  ;  egret  pilose  or  plumose,  scabrous; 
florets  of  the  ray  subulate,  of  the  disk  entire.  Sometimes  all  the  florets  are 
perfect.  49.  55  —  (life  everlasting).  S. 

B.  Flowers  radiate  :  the  ligulate  ray  florets  very  manifest. 
(Receptacle  naked.) 

ERI'GERON.  Calyx  imbricate,  sub-hemispherical  ;  florets  of  the  ray  very 
numerous  and  narrow  :  receptacle  naked  ;  egret  double  :  outer  minute  ;  inner 
hairy,  of  few  rays.  49.55  —  S. 

IN"ULA.  Calyx  imbricate,  generally  squarrose  ;  egret  simple,  scabrous, 
sometimes  a  minute,  exterior,  chaffy  one  ;  anthers  ending  in  2  bristles  at  the 


364  CLASS  XVIII.    ORDER  I. 

base ;  ray  florets  numerous.    Ray  florets  always  yellow.    49.  55 — (elecam- 
pane). *% 

AS"TER.  Calyx  imbricate,  the  inferior  scales  generally  spA-Mng  ;  egret 
simple,  pilose;  receptacle  often  deep  pitted.  Florets  of  the  ray iBGre  than  10, 
except  in  solidagonoides,  and  a  few  other  species  ;  colour  purple  or  white, 
never  yellow.  49.  55 — (star-flower).  S. 

SOLIDA'GO.  Calyx  oblong  or  sub-cylindric,  with  oblong,  narrow,  pointed 
straight  scales,  imbricate,  closed  upon  the  flower ;  ray  florets  about  5,  and 
fewer  than  10,  lanceolate,  2  toothed,  equal  to,  or  shorter  than  the  culyx  ;  fila- 
ments capillary,  very  short ;  style  thread  form,  equalling  the  length  of  the 
stamens,  stigma  cleft,  spreading  ;  egret  simple,  pilose,  scabrous  ;  receptacle 
furrowed  with  dots  or  punctures  ;  seeds  oblong  ovate,  (yellow.)  49.  55 — 
(golden  rod).  S. 

TUSSILA'GO.  Calyx  simple,  swelling  ;  scales  equal,  and  equalling  the  disk,, 
sub-membranous  ;  pistillate  florets  ligulate  or  without  teeth ;  egret  simple, 
sessile.  49.  55 — (Sometimes  polygamous;. — (coltsfoot). 

GH&VSAN"THEMUM.  .Calyx  hemispherical, imbricate,  with  the  scales  mem- 
branous at  the  margin  ;  egret  none,  or  a  narrow  margin.  49.  55 — (ox-eyed 
daisy,  fever-few).  & 

Exotic. ' 

BEL"LIS.  Calyx  hemispherical ;  scales  equal ;  egret  0 ;  receptacle  conical ; 
seed  obovate.  49.  45— (garden  daisy). 

TAGE'TES.    Calyx  simple,  1  leafed,  5  toothed,  tubular :   florets  of  the  ray 
about  5,  permanent ;  egret  5  erect  awns.    49.  55. — (marygold). 
(Receptacle  chaffy  or  hairy.) 

AN"THEMIS.  Calyx  hemispherical;  scales  with  scarious  margins,  nearly 
equal ;  egret  0,  or  a  membranous  margin  :  florets  of  the  ray  more  than  5  ;  re- 
ceptacle chaffs  flat,  with  a  rigid  acuminate  apex ;  need  crowned  with  a  mem- 
branous border  or  egret.  49.  55 — (may- weed,  chamomile).  <S. 

ACHILLE'A.  Calyx  imbricate,  ovate  unequal ;  egret  0  ;  florets  of  the  ray  5 
to  10, roundish,  dilated  (Flowers  corymbed).  49.55 — (yarrow).  S. 

HELIOP"SIS.  Calyx  imbricate,  with  ovate  linear  lined  scales ;  ray  florets 
linear,  large ;  receptacle  diaffy,  conic  ;  the  chaffs  lanceolate  ;  seeds  4  sided  ; 
egret  0.  49,  55— (sun-ray).  S. 

HELE'NIUM.  Calyx  1  leafed,  many  parted  ;  egret  5  awned,  chaffy  leaves  ; 
receptacle  globose,  naked  in  the  disk,  and  chaffy  in  the  ray  only  ;  florets  of 
the  ray  half  3  cleft  ;  seed  villose.  (J^aves  decurrent).  49.  55— (false  sun- 
flower). 5. 

ORDER   III.      POLYGAMIA  FRU8TRANEA. 

HELIAN"THDS.     Calyx  imbricate,  sub-squarrose,    leafy;   receptacle  flat, 
.chaffy ;  egret  2  leaved,  chaff  like,  caducous     49.  55—  (sunflower,  Jerusalem 
artichoke).  S. 

RUDBECK"IA.  Calyx  consisting  of  a  double  order  of  leafcts  or  scales ;  re- 
ceptacle chaffy,  conic  ;  egret  a  4  toothed  margin,  or  0.  49.  55 — (cone 
flower).  S. 

Exotic. 

CENTAU"REA.  Calyx  various,  mostly  imbricate,  roundish  ;  egret  simple, 
various  :  receptacle  bristly ;  corollas  of  the  ray,  funnel  shape,  longer,  irregular. 
49.  54— '(blue  bottle, blessed  thistle). 

ORDER     IV.      POLYGAMIA  NECESSARIA. 

Exotic. 

CALEN"DULA.  Calyx  many  leaved,  equal  ;  receptacle  naked ;  egret  none  ; 
seeds  of  the  disk  membranaceous.  49.  55 — (pot  marygold). 

ORDER.   V.      POLYGAMIA  SEGREGATA. 

ELEPHAN"TOPUS.  Partial  calyx  4  flowered  ;  florets  5  cleft, ligulate,  perfect ; 
receptacle  naked  ;  down  setaceous.  49.  55 — (elephant- foot).  S. 

CLASS  XVIII.     GYNANDRIA. 

ORDER  I.      MONANDRIA. 

A.  Anther  adnate,  sub-terminal,  not  caducous ;  tnasses  of  pollen  affixed  by  the 

base,  and  made  up  of  angular  particles. 

OR"CHIS.  Corolla  ringent  like,  upper  petal  vaulted ;  lip  dilated,  spurred  be- 
neath :  masses  of  pollen  2,  adnate,  terminal,  7,  21 — (orchis).  S. 


/       CLASS  XIX.    ORDER  III.  365 

HABEN  A'RIA.  Corolla  ringent ;  lip  spurred  at  the  base  beneath  ;  glands  of 
the  stalks  off  ^e  masses  of  pollen  naked  and  distinct ;  cells  of  the  stalks  adnate, 
or  separated.  7.  21 — S. 

B.  Anther  parallel  with  the  stigma,  not  caducous  ;  masses  of  pollen  affixed  to  the 

summit^  the  stigma,  and  made  up  of  farinaceous  or  angular  particles. 

GooDYE'iST  Corolla  ringent  like,  the  5  lower  petals  placed  under  the  gib- 
bous lip,  which  is  undivided  above  ;  style  free  ;  constituent  particles  of  the 
masses  of  pollen  angular.  7.  21 — (rattlesnake-leaf,  scrophula  weed).  <S. 

NEOT"TIA.  Corol  ringent ;  the  2  lower  petals  placed  beneath  the  lip  whidi 
is  beardless ;  interior  petals  converging ;  style  wingless  ;  pollen  farinaceous. 
7.  21—5. 

C.  Anther  inserted,  terminal,  not  caducous  ;    masses  of  pollen  farinaceous  or 

angular. 

POGO'NIA.  Petals  5,  distinct,  without  glands ;  lip  sessile,  cowled,  crested 
internally  ;  pollen  farinaceous.  7.  21 — (snake-mouth).  S. 

CYMBID"IUM.  Petals  5,  distinct ;  lip  behind  (or  inverted), unguiculate  :  the 
lamina  bearded  ;  style  free  :  pollen  angular.  7.  21 — (grass  pink).  S. 

ARETIIUSA.  Petals  5,  connate  at  the  base  :  lip  below,  growing  to  the  style, 
cowled  above,  crested  within  ;  pollen  angular.  7.  21 — (arethusa).  S. 

ORDER    II.      DIANDRIA. 

CYPRIPE'DIUM.  Calyx  coloured,  4  leaved,  spreading  ;  corolla  0  (by  some 
the  calyx  is  called  a  corolla )  ;  nectary  large,  hollow,  inflated ;  style  with  a  ter- 
minal lobe,  and  petal-like  appendage  on  the  upper  side.  7.  21 — (ladies'  slip- 
per). S. 

ORDER   V.      PENTANDRIA. 

Plants  bearing  seeds  in  follicles  ;  and  pollen  in  masses  called  poUinia. 

ASCLE'PIAS.  Petal  5,  reflexed  ;  nectaries.  5,  concave,  erect,  containing  lit- 
tle horns;  each  stamen  with  a  pair  of  pendulous  masses  of  pollen,  suspended 
from  the  top  of  the  stigma  ;  follicles  smooth.  30.  47 — (milk-weed,  silk- 
weed).  S. 

AFOC'YNTJM.  Corolla  bell  form  ;  stamens  with  converging  anthers,  pro- 
ceeding from  the  middle  of  the  stigma  and  alternating  with  5  nectaries ;  stig- 
ma thick,  almost  sessile  ;  follicles  in  pairs,  long-linear.  30.  47 — (dogbane,  In- 
dian hemp).  S, 

ORDER  VI.     HEXANDRIA 

ARISTOLO'CHIA.  Calyx  0;  corolla  superior,  1  petalled;  ligulate,  inflated  at 
the  base;  capsule  6  celled,  many  seeded,  ll.  23— (birthwort;.  5. 

ORDER   POLYANDRIA. 

AS"ARUM.  Calyx  subcampanulate,  3-4  cleft ;  corol  0  ;  anthers  adnate  to  the 
middle  of  the  filaments  ;  capsule  inferior,  6  celled,  crowned  with  the  calyx. 
11.  23— (wild  ginger).  S. 

CLASS    XIX.    MONGECIA. 

ORDER  III.  TRIANDRIA. 

TY'PHA.  Ament  cylindric,  dense  flowered.  Staminate  flowers — cafyx  obso- 
lete, 3  leaved  :  corolla  0  ;  stamens  3  together,  on  a  chaffy  or  hairy  receptacle, 
united  below  into  one.  Pistillate  flowers — below  the  staminate  ;  calyx  0 ;  co- 
rolla 0 ;  seed  1,  pedicelled ;  the  pedicels  surrounded  at  the  base  with  long  hairs 
resembling  egret.  3.  8 — (cat-tail,  or  reed  mace).  S. 

CA'REX.  Aments  imbricate  (usually  in  cylindric  spikes).  Staminate  flowers 
— calyx  scales  single ;  corolla  0.  Pistillate  flowers — calyx  scale  single ;"  corolla 
inflated,  monopetalous,  2  toothed  at  the  apex  ;  stigmas  2  or  3  ;  nut  3  sided, en- 
closed in  the  inflated,  permanent  corolla,  which  becomes  an  utriculus-like  per- 
manent aril.  Sometimes  dioecious.  3.9 — (sedge).  5. 

COMPTO'NIA.  Staminate  flowers — ament  cylindric,  with  calyx  scales  I  flow- 
ered ;  corolla  2  petalled  or  none  ;  filaments  2  forked.  Pistillate  flowers — spike 
or  ament  ovate  ;  corolla  6  petalled  (the  corolla  may  be  called  a  calyx)  ;  styles 
2  ;  nnt  oval,  1  celled.  50.  99— (sweet  fern).  S. 

Exotic. 

Colx.  Staminate  flowers  in  remote  spikes  ;  calyx  glume  2  flowered,  awn- 
less  ;  corolla  glume  awnless.  Pistillate  flowers — calyx  glume  2  flowered  ;  co- 
rolla glume  awnless~ ;  style  2  parted  ;  seed  covered  with  the  bone  like  calyx. 
4. 10~(job's  tear). 

31* 


366  CLASS  XIX.    ORDER  XII. 

*         Southern. 

ZE'A.  Staminate  flowers— calyx  glume  2  flowered,  awnless  ;  corolla  ghmro 
awnless.  Pistillate  flowers — calyx  glume  2  valved  (number  of  valves  increased 
by  cultivation)  ;  style  I ,  very  long,  filiform,  pendulous ;  seed  solitary,  immer- 
sed in  an  oblong  receptacle.  4.  10 — (Indian  corn). 

ORDER   IV.      TL-TRANDRIA. 

Ax"vus.  Staminate  flowers — ament  composed  of  wedge  form,  truncate  3 
flowered  receptacles  ;  calyx  a  scale,  3  lobed  ;  corolla  4  parted.  Pistillate  flow- 
ers—calyx 2  flowered  scales,  somewhat  3  cleft ;  corolla  0 ;  seed  compressed 
ovate,  wingless.  50.  99 — (alder).  S. 

UR"TICA.  Staminate  flowers — calyx  4  leaved  ;  corolla  0  ;  nectary  central, 
cyathiform.  Pistillate  flowers — calyx  2  leaved  (2  valved) ;  corolla  0:  seed  1, 
glossy.  53.  98— (nettle).  S. 

MO'RUS.  Staminate  flowers — calyx  4  parted;  corolla  0;  Pistillate  flowers 
—calyx  4  leaved ;  corolla  0  ;  styles  2,  calyx  becoming  berry-like  ;  seed  1.  53. 
98— (mulberry).  5. 

ORDER  V.      PKNTANDRIA. 

AMARAN"THUS.  Staminate  flowers — calyx  3  or  5  leaved  ;  corolla  0 ;  sta- 
mens 3  or  5.  Pistillate  flowers — calyx  and  corolla  as  the  Staminate  ;  styles  3; 
capsule  1  celled,  opening  transversely  ;  seed  1.  54.-  30 — (amaranth,  red 
cockscomb).  S. 

AMBRO'SIA.  Staminate  flowers — common  calyx  1  leaved  ;  anthers  in  con- 
tact but  not  united  ;  corolla  1  petalled,  '>  cleft,  funnel  form  ;  receptacle  naked. 
Pistillate  flowers — calyx  1  leaved,  entire,  the  swelling  part  5  toothed,  1 
flowered;  corolla  0  ;  nut  from  the  indurated  calyx  1  seeded.  54.  98 — (hog- 
weed).  5. 

ORDER  XII.      POLTANDRIA. 

A.  Stems  not  tcoody. 

SAGITTA'RIA.  Staminate  flowers — calyx  3  leaved  ;  corolla  3  petalled  ; 
filaments  mostly  24.  Pistillate  flowers — calyx  and  corolla  as  in  the  sta- 
minate ;  germs  many  ;  capsules  aggregate,  1  seeded,  not  opening.  5.  13 — 
(arrow-head).  S. 

AR"CM.  Spatha  cucullate,  1  leaved  ;  spadix  not  entirely  covered  with  the 
fructification ;  being  more  or  less  naked  above,  with  pistillate  flowers  be- 
neath, and  Staminate  'in  the  middle  (sometimes  a  few  are  Staminate  beneath  ; 
berry  mostly  1  seeded,  generally  cirrose  glandular  beneath).  2.  7 — (Indian 
turnip,  wake-robin).  S. 

CAL"LA.  Spatha  ovate,  becoming  expanded ;  spadix  covered  with  the  fruc- 
tification ;  stamens  intermixed.  Staminate  flowers — calyx  and  corolla  0 ;  an- 
thers sessile.  Pistillate  flowers — calyx  and  corolla  0  ;  berries  1  celled  many 
seeded,  crowned  with  the  short  style.  2.  7 — (water  arum). 

EUPHOR"BIA.  Involucrum  perianth  like,  inflated,  with  alternating  petal  like 
segments.  Staminate  florets  12  or  more,  at  the  base  of  the  stipe  of  the  pistil- 
late flower,  each  consisting  of  an  anther  united  to  a  pedicel  by  a  filament.  Pis- 
tillate flower  central,  single,  stiped  ;  with  three  2  cleft  styles  ;  capsule  3  lobed. 
38.  96— (caper,  spurge).  S. 

Exotic. 

POTF.'RIUM.    Staminate  flowers— calyx  4  leaved  ;  corolla  4  parted  ;  stamens 
30  to  50.     Pistillate  flowers— calyx  and  corolla  like  the  Staminate  ;  pistils  2  ; 
berry  from  the  indurated  tube  of  the  corolla.  54.  92 — (burnet). 
B.  Stems  woody. 

QUKR"CUS.  Staminate  flowers — ament  loose  ;  calyx  sub  5  clefl  ;  corolla  0 ; 
ttamens  5  to  10.  Pistillate  flowers — calyx  1  leafed,  entire,  scabrous,  being  a 
woody  cup ;  style  1,  stigma  2  to  5  ;  nut  or  acorn  1  celled,  1  seeded,  coriaceous, 
surrounded  at  the  base  by  the  permanent  calyx.  50.  99— (oak).  <S. 

COR"YLUS.  Staminate  flowers — ament  cylindric,  imbricate  ;  calyx  a  3  cleft 
fccale ;  pericarp  none ;  stamens  about  8.  Pistillate  flowers — calyx  2  parted,  la- 
cerated ;  stigmas  2 ;  nut  ovate,  surrounded  by  and  included  in  the  permanent 
leaf. like  calyx.  50.  99— (hazlenut).  £. 

FA'GUS.  Staminate  flowers — ament  roundish  :  calyx  5  or  6  cleft,  bell-form  : 
stamens  5  to  12.  Pistillate  flowers — calyx  4  toothed,  setose  :  germs  2:  nuts 
2,  inclosed  in  the  calyx,  becoming  coriaceous  echinate.  50.  99— (beech).  N. 

CASTA'NKA.    Polygamous.    Staminate  flowers — ament  naked,  linear  :  coroi- 


CLASS  XX.  ORDER  III.  367 

la  (or  calyx)  1  leaved,  5  or  6  parted  ;  stamens  10  to  20.  Pistillate  flowers — 
calyx  5  or  6  leaved,  (or  5  or  6  lobed)  muricate  ;  germs  ?  ;  stigma  pencil-form  ; 
nuts  3,  with  coriaceous  putamen,  enclosed  in  the  calyx,  becoming  echinate. 
50.  99— (chesnut).  S. 

BE"TULA.  Staminate  flowers — ament  cylindric,  imbricate,  scales  peltate, 
3  flowered ;  stamens  10  to  12  Pistillate  flowers— calyx  a  2  or  3  flowered 
scale  :  seed  1,  winged.  50.  99— (birch).  S. 

PLAT"ANUS.  Ament  globose.  Staminate  flowers— corolla  none  or  scarce- 
ly apparent,  anthers  growing  around  the  filaments.  Pistillate  flowers — calyx 
many  leaved  ;  style  with  a  recurved  stigma ;  seed  roundish,  crowned  with  the 
mucronate style,  with  egret-like  hairs  at  the  base.  50.  99 — (button-wood,  false 
sycamore).  S. 

JUG"JLANS.  Staminate  flowers — ament  imbricate ;  calyx  a  scale,  generally 
5  parted ;  corolla  4  or  5  parted  ;  stamens  18  to  36.  Pistillate  flowers — calyx  4 
cleft,  superior  ;  corolla  4  cleft  or  4  parted  ;  styles  1  or  2 ;  drupe  partly  spongy  ; 
nut  rugose  and  irregularly  furrowed.  50  94— (butternut,  black  walnut).  S. 

CAR"YA.  Staminate  flowers — ament  imbricate  ;  calyx,  3  parted  scales ; 
corolla  0  ;  stamens  4  to  6.  Pistillate  flowers — calyx  4  cleft,  superior  ;  corolla 
0  :  styles  0 ;  stigma  disk-like,  4  lobed  ;  pericarp  4  valved  ;  nut  sub-quadrangu- 
lar, oven.  50.  94— (hickory,  walnut).  S 

ORDER   XV.      MONADELPHIA. 

A.  Stems  not  woody. 

MOWOR';DICA.  Staminate  flowers— calyx  5  or  6  cleft  ;  corolla  5  or  6  parted  ; 
filaments  3.  Pistillate  flowers — style  3  cleft ;  berry  gourd-like  and  bursting 
elastically  ;  seeds  compressed.  34.  97 — (balsam  apple,  wild  cucumber). 

Exotic. 

CUC^UMIS.  Staminate  flowers — calyx  5  toothed  ;  corolla  5  parted  ;  fila- 
ments 3.  Pistillate  flowers — calyx  and  corolla  like  the  Staminate  ;  stigmas  3, 
thick,  2  parted;  berry  with  sharpish  seeds.  34.  97 — (cucumber,  musk-melon). 

CUCUR'BITA.  Staminate  flowers— calyx  5  toothed  ;  corolla  5  cleft ;  fila- 
ments 3.  Pistillate  flowers — calyx  and  corolla  like,  the  Staminate  ;  pistil  3 
cleft ;  pomaceous  berry  large,  3  to  5  celled  ;  seeds  thickened  at  the  margin. 
34.  97 — (gourd,  squash,  pumpkin,  water-melon). 

RICI'NUS.    Staminate  flowers — calyx  5  parted ;  stamens  numerous.    Pistil- 
late flowers— calyx  3  parted  ;  styles  3,  2  cleft ;  capsules  echinate,  3  celled,  3 
seeded.    38.  96 — (palma  christi,  or  castor  oil  plant). 
B.  Stems  woody. 

PI'NUS.  Staminate  flowers — calyx  4  leaved,  peltate ;  corolla  0 ;  stamens 
many ;  anthers  naked,  2,  sessile,  1  celled.  Pistillate  flowers — calyx  in  strobiles 
or  cones,  scales  closely  imbricate,  2  flowered ;  pistil  1  ;  nut  with  a  membrana- 
ceous  wing.  (Perhaps  more  properly  a  samara).  51.  100—  (pine).  S. 

CUPRES"SUS.  Staminate  flowers — ament  ovate,  imbricate ;  calyx  a  peltate 
scale;  corolla  0;  anthers  4,  sessile.  Pistillate  flowers — ament  strobilaceous  ; 
calyx  a  1  flowered  peltate  scale  ;  corolla  0  ;  germs  4  to  8,  under  each  scale  of 
the  calyx  ;  nuts  angular,  compressed.  51.  100— (white  cedar).  S. 

CLASS    XX.       DIGGCIA. 

ORDER   II.     DIANDRIA. 

SA'LIX.  Staminate  flowers — ament  cylindric  ;  calyx  a  1  floAvered  scale, 
with  a  nectariferous  gland  at  the  base  :  stamens  1  to  6.  Pistillate  flowers — 
ament  and  calyx  like  the  staminate  ;  stigmas  2  ;  generally  2  cleft  ;  capsule  1 
celled  ;  2  valved  ;  seeds  many,  with  egret-like  down.  50.99 — (willow).  <S. 

FRAX"INUS.  Polygamous.  Perfect  flowers — calyx  0,  or  3  or  4  parted  ;  co- 
rolla 0,  or  4petalled  ;  pistil  1  ;  samara  1  seeded,  with  a  lanceolate  wing,.  Pis- 
tillate flowers — calyx,  corolla,  and  pistils  same  as  perfect.  44.  37 — (ash).  -S. 

ORDER   III.      TRIANDRIA. 

Exotic. 

Fi'cus.  Common  receptacle  fleshy  (becoming  the  fruit),  enclosing  the  ape- 
talous  florets  ;  both  staminate  and  pistillate,  either  in  the  same,  or  in  distinct 
individuals.  Staminate  flowers — calyx  3  parted.  Pistillate  flowers — calyx  5 
parted  ;  pistil  1,  lateral  ;  seed  1,  covered  with  the  closed,  permanent,  some- 
what fleshy  calyx.  53.  98— (fig-tree). 


368  CLASS  XXI.  ORDER  I. 

ORDER    IV.      TETRAHDRIA. 

VIS"CUM.  Staminate  flowers — calyx  4  parted ;  corolla  0  ;  anthers  sessile, 
adhering  to  the  calyx.  Pistillate  flowers — calyx  4  leaved,  superior  ;  corolla  0 ; 
style  0  ;  berry  1  seeded,  globose  ;  seed  cordate;  (parasitic,  adhering  to  trees). 
43.  58— ^misletoe).  S. 

ORDER  V.      PINTANDRIA. 

ZAKTHOX"YLUM.  Staminate  flowers— calyx  5  parted ;  corolla  0  ;  stamens  3 
to  6.  Pistillate  flowers— pistils  3  to  5  ;  capsules  equal  to  the  number  of  pistils, 

1  seeded.    46.  $4— (prickly  ash,  or  tooth-ache  tree).  S. 

HuM"uLU9.    Staminate  flowers — calyx  5  leaved  ;  corolla  0  ;  anthers  with 

2  pores  at  the  extremity.     Pistillate  flowers— calyx    1  leaved,  entire,  oblique, 
spreading  ;  styles  2  ;  seed  1,  within  the  leaf-like  calyx  ;  inflorescence  strobile- 
form.    53.98—  ( hop).  S. 

Exotic. 

CAN".V\BIS.  Staminate  flowers — calyx  5  parted.  Pistillate  flowers— calyx 
5  leaved,  entire,  gaping  laterally  ;  styles  2;  nut  2  valved,  within  the  closed 
calyx.  53.  98— (hemp). 

SPINA'CIA.  Staminate  flowers — calyx  5  parted  ;  corolla  0.  Pistillate  flow- 
ert— styles  4  ;  seed  1,  within  the  indurated  calyx.  12.  29 — (spinach). 

ORDER  VI.      HEXANDRIA. 

SMI'LAX.  Staminate  flowers — calyx  6  leaved  ;  cprol  0  ;  anthers  adnate  to 
the  filaments.  Pistillate  flowers — style  minute:  stigmas  3;  berry-  3  celled, 
superior,  1—3  seeded.  11.  12.  S. 

ORDER   VIII.      OCTANDRIA. 

PO'PULUS.  Staminate  flowers — ament  cylindric,  calyx  a  torn  scale  ;  corolla 
tnrbinate,  oblique,  entire,  supporting  8  to  30  stamens.  Pistillate  flowers — 
ament,  calyx  and  corolla  like  the  Staminate  ;  stigma  4  or  6  lobed :  capsule  2 
celled,  2  valved,  many  seeded  ;  seed  with  egret-like  hairs.  (Leaves  having 
a  tremulous  motion;.  50.  99— (poplar,  balm  of  Gilead).  5. 

ORDER   XII.      POLTANDRIA. 

MENISPER"MUM.  Staminate  flowers.— Calyx  2  bracted,  about  6  leaved,  ca- 
ducous ;  petals  6—9,  glandular,  minute,  retuse ;  stamens  16—24 ;  anthers  ad- 
nate to  the  filaments,  4  lobed,  2  celled.  Pistillate  flowers.-  Germs  and  styles. 
3—6 ;  drupes  mostly  solitary,  1  seeded  ;  nut  lunate,  compressed.  11.  77.  5. 

CLASS    XXI.    CRYPTOGAMIA. 

ORDER  I.      FIUCE3. 

A.  Capsule  having  an  elastic  ring  at  right  angles  with  its  opening. 

POLYPO'DIUM.  Capsules  disposed  in  round  scattered  fruit  dots  (or  clusters 
of  capsules),  on  various  parts  of  the  lower  surface  of  the  frond  :  irivolucrum 
none.  55.  5— fpolypod).  -S. 

ASPID"IUM.  Capsules  in  scattered  roundish  fruit-dots  on  various  parts  of 
the  whole  lower  surface  of  the  frond  ;  involucrum  a  kidney-form  or  round 
membrane,  fastened  to  the  frond  in  or  near  th,e  centre  of  the  fruit-dot,  and 
opening  on  all  sides,  or  to  one  side  of  the  fruit-dot,  and  opening  on  the  other. 
('The  involucrum,  when  a  little  opened,  is  often  peltate).  55.  5 — (shield- 
fern).  AV. 

PTER"IS  Capsules  arranged  in  a  continued  line  along  the  very  margin  of 
the  frond  ;  involucres  opening  inwards,  being  formed  of  the  inflexed  margins 
of  the  fronds.  (When  the  leaves  are  extremely  small,  the  rows  of  capsules  on 
opposite  sides  meet  and  cover  the  lower  surface).  55.  5 — (brake).  5. 

ADIAN"TUM.  Capsules  disposed  in  oblong  fruit-dots,  arranged  along  the 
margin  of  the  frond  ;  involucrum  is  formed  by  turning  back  the  margin  of  the 
frond  over  the  capsules,  and  it  opens  inwards.  (The  lines  of  oblong  spot*  are 
generally  along  that  margin,  which  may  be  considered  the  end  of  the  leaf,  or 
of  the  segments  of  the  leaf  .  55. 5— (maidenhair).  S. 

OINOCLE'A.  Fruit-dots  indeterminate,  presenting  a  berry-like  appearance ; 
capsnles  covering  the  whole  lower  surface  of  the  frond  ;  involucrum  formed 
by  turning  in  or  rolling  hack  the  margin  of  the  leaf,  which  opens  inwards,  in 
maturity,  towards  the  midrib,  or  remains  closed.  The  fertile  leaves  are  con- 
tracted and  narrower  than  the  barren  ones.  55.  5— (sensitive  polypod).  S. 


CLASS  XXL  ORDER  IV.  369 

B.  Capsule  without  a  ring — being  cellular-reticulate,  pellucid,  sub-striate,  radiate 
at  the  tip. 

OSMUN"DA.  Capsules  globose,  pedicelled,  radiate-striate  or  wrinkled,  having 
a  hinge  at  the  joining  of  the  two  valves,  which  resembles  part  of  the  jointed 
ring  of  annulated  ferns  :  the  capsules  either  occupy  the  whole  frond,  to  a  lim- 
ited extent,  or  a  pannicled  raceme.  (The  parts  of  the  frond  occupied  by  the 
fruit  are  always  more  contracted  than  the  barren  parts).  55.  5-— (flowering 
fern).  S. 

D.  Sub-order,  APTERES — without  pinnate,  pinnatifid,  or  other  winged  leaves. 

LYCOPO'DIUM.  Capsules  mostly  kidney-form,  or  roundish,  2  or  4  valved, 
opening  elastically  ;  they  are  placed  under  separate  scales  in  a  spike,  or  some- 
times in  the  axils  of  the  leaves.  Leafy,  their  stems  being  generally  covered 
with  2,  3,  or  4  rows  of  narrow,  simple,  entire  leaves.  55.  5 — (ground-pine).  iS. 

EQUISE'TUM.  Fruit  placed  under  peltate  polygons,  being  pileus-like  bodies, 
which  are  arranged  in  whorls,  forming  a  spike-form  raceme  ;  4  to  7  spiral  fila- 
ments surround  the  seed  (probably),  which  resemble  green  globules.  (Fertile 
plants  mostly  leafless  ;  the  stems  of  all  are  jointed  with  toothed  sheaths  at 
every  joint,  and  usually  longitudinally  striated  and  hollow.  55.  5 — (scouring 
rush,  horsetail).  S. 

ORDER   II.      MUSCI.* 

FUNA'RIA.  Teeth  of  the  outer  peristome  16,  cohering  together  at  the  apex, 
and  twisted  obliquely  ;  the  inner  peristome  consists  of  16  membranaceous 
cilia,  opposite  to  the  teeth,  lying  flatly.  56.  4. 

POLYTRI'CHUM.  Peristome  very  short  ;  teeth  16  , 32,  or  64  ;  mouth  of  the 
germ  covered  by  a  dry  membrane,  which  is  connected  to  it  by  the  teeth  of  the 
peristome  ;  calyptre  very  small,  with  a  large  villose  or  hairy  covering.  56.  4. 

ORDER   III.      HEPATIC.E.  , 

MARCHAN"TIA.  Receptacles  pedicelled,  radiate-lobed,  disk-like  or  bell- 
form,  with  the  inside  downwards,  to  which  the  globose  4  valved  capsules  are 
attached,  with  their  apexes  downwards.  The  umbrella-like  receptacle  is  eleva- 
ted one  or  two  inches  by  a  stipe  attached  to  the  centre  of  its  lower  side,  among 
the  capsules  and  many  pilose  appendages.  The  frond  is  leafy,  reticulate,  fur- 
nished with  a  midrib,  and  beset  with  villose  roots  on  the  under  side,  which 
attach  themselves  to  the  stones  in  brooks,  to  damp  earth,  &c.  57.  3. 

JUNGERMAN"NIA.  Capsules  4  valved,  globose,  elevated  by  peduncles  or 
stipes  from  within  a  bell-form  calyx.  The  fronds  are  made  up  of  finer  leaves 
than  those  of  theMarchantia,  and  are  often  mistaken  for  mosses,  among  which 
they  generally  grow.  57.  3. 

ORDER     IV.      ALGJE. 

A.  The  section  FUCOIDE^E  comprises  those  sea-weeds  of  the  old  genus  Fucus, 
whose  fronds  are  cartilaginous  or  leathery,  and  of  an  olive  or  copper  colour,  be- 
coming brown  or  black.     They  are  composed  of  interwoven  longitudinal  jib-res. 
The  floating  vesicles  appear  like  portions  of  the  frond  blown  up  in  bubbles. 
Fu'cus.     Receptacles  tubercled  ;  tubercles  perforated,  nourishing  aggrega- 
ted capsules  within,  intermixed  with  articulated  fibres.    57.  2. 

B.  The  section  FLORIDE^E  comprises  these  sea-weeds  of  the  old  genus  Fucus, 
whose  fronds  are  leathery,  membranous  or  gelatinous,  and  of  a  purple  or  rose 
colour. 

HALYME'NIA.  Frond  membranaceous,  leathery,  nerveless,  punctate;  seed 
immersed  throughout  the  whole  frond,  disposed  in  spots.  57.  2. 

C.  The  section  ULVOIDE^E   comprises  the  plants  of  the  old  genus  Ulva.     Fronds 
membranaceous  (broad,  or  in  narrow  slips),  thin,  of  a  grass-green  colour. 
Their  mibstance  consists  of  cells,  with  the  fruit  immersed  in  the  frond.    They 
grow  on  rocks,  stones,  shells,  &c.  in  the  sea ;  also  in  ditches,  stagnant  wa- 
ters, damp  woods,  &c.    57.  2. 

UL"VA.  Seeds  in  fours,  immersed  in  every  part  of  the  membranaceous 
frond.  57.  2. 

*  Mosses  may  be  gathered  whenever  the  capsules  have  arrived  to  their  usual 
size  ;  but  they  must  be  put  in  a  closet,  until  the  lids  of  the  capsule  become 
reddish-brown,  before  they  are  examined  ;  then  the  lids  may  be  removed,  and 
the  teeth  examined. 


370  CLASS  XXI.    ORDER  VI. 

D.  The  section  CONFERVOIDE^E  comprises  the  plants  of  the  eld  genus  Conferva. 
Fruit  capsular  or  naked  granulations.    Fronds  Jiliform  and  geniculate,  con- 
taining the  fruit  immersed  in  them,  generally  strung  on   Uireads ;  mostly  of 
a  grass-green  or  greenish  colour,  sometimes  purple.    They  grow  in   freah 
water  streams,  springs,  ditches,  and  stagnant  waters  ;  sometimes  in  damp 
woods,  and  some  in  the  sea. 

CONFER"VA.  Filaments  articulated,  uniform,  simple  or  branched  ;  contain- 
ing the  seed  within  them.  No  external  fruit.  57.  2. 

E.  The  section  TREMELLINJE  comprises  the  old  genus  TremeUa.    Plants  of  this 
section  are  all  gelatinous,  hyaline,  and  covered  with  a  membrane.     They  art- 
globose,  palmate,  or  filiform ;    and   contain  conferva-like  Jilaments  within. 
Colour  green  or  purplish.     They  resemble  Conferooidea  in  habit  and  place  of 
growth. 

NOS"TOO.  Filaments  monili-form,  constituted  from  coadunate  globules. 
Fronds bul late,  vesicular  (at  length  becoming  flattened),  crowded  with  simple 
monili-fonn,  curve-criaped  filaments.  57.  2. 

ORDER   V.      LICHENEB. 

GYROPH"OIU.  Frond  foliaceous,  coriaceous-cartilaginous,  peltate,  mono- 
phyllous,  (when  luxuriant,  polyphyllous)  free  beneath ;  receptacles  (buttons) 
somewhat  shield-form,  sessile-aanate,  clothed  with  a  dark  membmnacoons  car- 
tilage, including  a  somewhat  solid  parenchymous  substance ;  disk  warty  or 
circinal,  plicate  and  margined.  57.  2. 

PARME'LIA  Frond  coriaceous,  sub-membranaceous,  flat,  expanded,  close- 
pressed,  orbicular,  stellate  and  lobed,  or  multifid-laciniate,  having  fibres  be- 
neath :  receptacle  shield-form,  sub-membranaceous,  formed  under-side  from 
the  frond,  free,  with  a  central  puncture  by  which  it  is  affixed  ;  seed-bearing 
lamina  forming  the  disk,  concave,  coloured,  covering  the  whole  receptacle 
above,  within  similar,  sub-cellular  and  striate,  cut  round,  indexed  with  a  frond- 
like  margin.  57. 2 

CETRA'RIA.  Frond  cartilaginous  or  membranaceous,  ascending  or  expand- 
ed ;  lobe  laciniatc,  smooth  and  naked  both  sides  :  receptacle*  (targets)  shield 
like  obliquely  attached  to  the  margin  of  the  frond,  the  lower  free,  being  sepa- 
rate! from  it,  the  upper  one  sessile  ;  seed  bearing  lamina  forming  the  disk, 
coloured,  piano  concave,  within  similar  or  cellular  striate,  surrounded  with  a 
frond  like  indexed  margin.  57.  2. 

CENOMY'CE  Frond  crusty  or  cartilaginous,  foliaceous,  laciniate,  sub-imbri- 
cate free  (ran  ly  adnate)  :  bearing  sub-hstulous  peduncles  (podetin\  both  bar- 
ren and  fertile  :  receptacles  (knobs)  orbicular,  without  margins,  at  length  con- 
vox  and  capitate,  inflated  or  empty  beneath,  terminal  attached  to  the  peduncles 
by  their  peripheries :  seed  bearing  lamina  forming  the  receptable  above  thick- 
ish,  coloured,  similar  within,  convex,  reflexed  and  attached  at  the  periphery, 
invested  beneath  with  the  woolly  integument  of  the  frond.  57.  2. 

B^EMV'CES.  Frond  crustaceous,  flat,  expanded,  adnate :  bearing  soft,  solid, 
fertile  peduncles  (podetia)  :  receptacles  (knobs)  capitate,  without  margins, 
solid,  terminal,  sessile  on  the  peduncles ;  seed  bearing  lamina  covering  the 
whole  receptacle  and  adnate  to  it,  convex  reflexed,  thickish,  coloured,  similar 
within.  57.  2. 

I"S".VE A.  Frond  sub-crustaceous,  teretish,  branched,  mostly  pendulous :  cen- 
tral part  hyaline,  elastic  composed  of  fascicles  of  tubes  :  receptacles  orbicular, 
terminal,  peltate,  formed  wholly  from  the  frond,  covered  all  over  with  its  cor- 
rieal  substance,  similar,  nearly  of  an  uniform  colour ;  its  periphery  destitute  of 
margin,  but  often  surrounded  by  a  ciliate  edging.  57.  2. 

ORDER   VI.      FUNGI. 

LYCOPER"DON.  "Receptacle  somewhat  caulescent,  at  length  bursting  at  tho 
top.  with  scaly  warts  or  priekles  scattered  over  its  surface,  especially  when 
young.  Seminal  dust  green.  58.  1. 

MU'COR.  Receptacle  membranaceous,  globose,  stiped,  at  first  watery  and 
pellucid,  then  opake  ;  seeds  naked,  sub-cohering.  Very  minute  and  fuga- 
cious. 58.  1. 

TRE'DO.  Receptacle  0 ;  seminal  dust  under  the  cuticle  of  leaves  and  stems, 
When  raptured  it  is  easily  brushed  off;  the  little  masses  of  seeds  uniform, 
mostly  globose.  58.  1. 


CLASS  XXI.    ORDER  VI.  371 

AGAR"ICUS.  Destitute  of  a  volva  at  the  base  of  the  stipe,  with  or  without 
the  ring  ;  lamellae  either  entire  or  with  shorter  ones  intermixed,  rarely  simple 
ramose.  Never  veiny.  A  vast  genus.  Persoon  describes  447  species,  which 
occupy  one  third  of  his  work  on  Fungi.  58.  1. 

BOLE'TUS.  Pileus  various  :  tubes  and  pores  terete,  entire,  A  large  genus. 
Persoon  describes  83  species.  58.  1. 


SPECIES    OF   PLANTS. 


The  first  number  on  the  left  of  the  generic  name  is  that  of  the  artificial  class  ; 
the  second,  of  the  artificial  order  to  which  the  plant  belongs. 

The  first  number  on  the  right  of  the  generic  name  is  that  of  the  natural  order 
of  Linnaeus,  the  second,  that  of  Jussieu. 

A  number  at  the  end  of  a  specific  description  denotes  the  average  height 
of  the  plant  in  the  wild  state— in  feet  with  f.,  in  inches  with  i. 

A. 

8—1.     ACER.     23.    66. 

rub'rum  (red  maple,  soft  maple,  O.  r.  Ap.  *  ).  leaves  palmate,  5  lobed,  cordate 
at  the  base,  unequally  gash  toothed,  glaucous  beneath,  dividing  incisions 
between  the  lobes  acute  :  flowers  in  fives  in  sessile  umbels,  with  long  pedi- 
cels ;  germs  glabrous.  50  f.  S. 

tacchari'num  (sugar  maple,  rock  maple,  hard  maple,  O.  r-y.  M.  >).  leaves  pal- 
mate 5  lobed,  at  the  base  sub-cordate,  acuminate,  obtusely  sinuate,  sinuate 
toothed,  glaucous  beneath  :  peduncles  in  a  nodding  corymb.  Large  tree. 
50  f.  S. 

ttria'tum  (striped  maple,  false  dogwood,  moose  wood.  O.  g.  M.  > ).  lower 
leaves  roundish,  upper  ones  3  cuspidate  acuminate,  sharply  serrate,  gla- 
brous :  racemes  simple,  pendant.  Small  tree,  with  a  greenish  striped 
bark.  15  f.  -S. 

17—2.    ACHILLEA.     49.    55. 

millefc/lium  (yarrow,  milfoil,  O.  w.  J.  4).  leaves  2  pinnatifid,  downy :  the 
divisions  linear,  toothed,  mucronate  :  calyx  and  stem  furrowed.  15  i.  -S. 

12—5.     ACON1TUM.    26»61. 

uncina'tum  (monk's  hood.  b.  J.  4).  stem  flexuose ;  leaves  palmate,  3  to  5  part- 
ed ;  divisions  rhomb  lanceolate,  gash  toothed  ;  upper  lip  of  the  corolla 
lengthened,  convex,  beaked.  Cultivated.  2  f.  S. 

Exotic. 

xapel"lus  (wolfs  bane.  b.  J.  4).  leaves  shining,  5  parted  ;  the  divisions  3  part- 
ed by  gashed  incisions,  sub-divisions  linear  .  upper  lip  of  the  corolla  lanceo- 
late, ascending,  2  cleft ;  spur  strait,  obtuse.  2  f. 

6—1.     ACORUS.    2.     13. 

fal"amu8  (sweet  flag,  calamus.  O.  g-y.  J.  4).  spike  protruding  from  the  side 
of  a  sword  form  leaf  like  scape.  Water  or  wet.  Root  strongly  aromatic. 
2.  f.  N. 

12—1.     ACT7EA.     26.     61. 

america'na  (bane  berry.  6.  w.  4).  leaves  twice  and  trice  ternate  ;  racemes 
ovate ;  petals  shorter  than  the  stamens ;  berries  ovate  oblong.  Var.  1.  alba, 
petals  truncate  ;  pedicels  of  the  fruit  thicker  than  the  peduncle  ;  berries 
white,  Var.  2.  rubra,  petals  acute,  pedicels  of  the  fruit  slender,  berries  red. 
2ft. 

21—1.     ADIANTHUM.     55.     5. 

peda'tum  (maiden  hair.  O.  J.  4).  frond  pedate,  with  pinnate  branches  ;  lenfeU 
halved,  upper  margin  gashed— barren  segments  toothed,  fertile  ones  entire  ; 
stipe  capillary,  very  glabrous.  Woods.  1  f.  S. 

12—13.     ADONIS.    26.    61. 

Exotic. 

autumnc/lis  (pheasant's  eye.    Au.  ©).    flowers  5  to  8  petalled  ;  fruit  sub-cylin- 
dric ;  petals  erose,  or  emarginate. 


jESCULUS,  AMARYLLIS.  373 

7—1.    jESCULUS.    23.     66. 

Exotic. 

hippocas"tanum  (horse  chesnut,  w.  J.  ^).   leaves  digitate,  with  about  7  divi- 
sions :  corolla  5  petalled,  spreading  :  flowers  in  a  panicled  pyramid.     15  f. 
5—2.     jETHUSA.      45.     60 

Southern. 

divarica'ta  (E.  w.  ©).  stem  erect,  slender  :  leaves  biternate  :  segments  narrow 
linear :  umbels  terminal,  without  involucres  ;  partial  umbels  3  to  5  flowered  ; 
fruit  hispid. 

21—6-     AGARICUS.    38.     12. 

campes"tris,  pileus  fleshy,  flattish,  having  dark  yellow  scales  :  lamellse  becom- 
ing yellowish  red  :  stipe  short :  the  ring  volva  rather  incomplete.  This  is 
the  common  eatable  mushroom. 

11—2.     AGRIMONIA.     35.     92. 

eupato'ria  (agrimony.  O.  y.  Ju.  4).  cauline  leaves  interruptedly  pinnate,  the 
terminal  leafet  petioled  ;  leafets  obovate,  gash  toothed,  almost  glabrous  : 
flowers  sub-sessile  ;  petals  twice  as  long  as  the  calyx :  fruit  hispid.  2  f.  S. 

10—5.     AGROSTEMMA.     22.     82. 

githa'go  (cockle.  O.  r.  J.  ©).  hirsute  :  calyx  longer  than  the  corolla  :  petals 
entire.  &. 

3—2.     AGROSTIS.     4.      10. 

vulga'ris  (red-top.  O.  J.4).  panicle  with  smoothish  branches,  spreading  in  ma- 
turity :  outer  valve  of  the  corolla  3  nerved  :  stipule  short,  truncate.  18  i- 
al'ba  (white  top,  bonnet  grass.  O.  J.  4).  panicle  with  hispid,  spreading,  lax 
branches  :  outer  valVe  of  the  corolla  5  nerved  :  stipule  oblong.  18  i.  Var. 
decumbens  (florin  grass),  stem  decumbent.  This  variety  is  considered  as  a 
distinct  species  by  some,  and  called  stolonifera.  S. 

6—13.     ALISMA.     5.     13. 

planta'go  (water  plantain.  6.  w.  Ju.  4).  leaves  ovate  cordate,  acute  or  obtuse, 
9  nerved  :  flowers  in  a  compound  verticillate  panicle  :  fruit  obtusely  trian- 
gular. Var.  parviflora,  flowers  very  small :  leaves  oval,  5—7  nerved, 
acuminate. 

6—1.     ALLIUM.     9.     16. 

Exotic. 
ce'pa  (garden  onion.  Ju.  4).  scape  naked,  swelling  towards  the  base,  longer 

than  the  terete  leaves. 

schcenopra'sum  (cives.  Ju.  4).  scape  naked,  equalling  the  leaves  which  are  te- 
rete filiform. 

19—4.     ALNUS.     50.     99. 

serrula'ta  (alder.  O.  r.-g.  Ap.  ^).  leaves  obovate,  acuminate  ;  veins  and  their 
axils  hairy  beneath  ;  stipules  oval,  obtuse.  9  f.  S. 

15—13.     ALTHAEA.     37.     74. 

ojfirina'lis  (marsh  mallows.  4).  leaves  downy,  oblong  ovate;  obsoletely  3 
lobed, toothed. 

Exotic. 

ros"ea  (hollyhock.  3 .)  stem  erect ;  leaves  rough,  heart  form,  5  to  7  angled  : 
crenate. 

19—5.     AMARANTHUS.     54.     80. 

al"bus  (white  coxcomb,  g-w.  Ju.  ©).  glomerules  axillary,  triandrous  ;  leaves 
obovate,  retuse  ;  stem  4  cornered,  simple.  Common  garden  weed. 

Exotic. 

mela.nchol"icus  (love-lies-bleeding,  r  ©).  glomerules  axillary,  peduncled,  round- 
ish ;  leaves  lance  ovate,  coloured. 

6—1.     AMARYLLIS.     9.     17. 

atamas"co  (atamasco  lily.  w.  &  r.  J.  4).  spatha  2  cleft,  acute  :  flower  pedicel- 
led  :  corolla  bell  form,  sub-equal,  erect :  stamens  declined. 
Exotic. 

farmosis"sima  (jacobea.  4).  spatha  1  flowered  :  corolla  ringent  like  :  petals 
declined. 

32 


874  AMBROSIA,  ANGELICA. 

19—5.     AMBROSIA.     54      98. 

ela'tior  (hogweed.  O.  S.  ©).  leaves  doubly  pinnatifid,  smoothish  :  petioles 
long,  ciliated  :  racemes  terminal,  panicled  :  stem  wand  like.  S. 

16—10      AMORPHA.     32.    93. 

frutico'sa  (E.  Ju  >)•  smooth,  sub-arborescent  ;  leaves  petioled,  emarginate  : 
spikes  aggregated,  long  :  calyx  hoary,  pedicelled,  one  of  the  teeth  acuminate, 
the  rest  obtuse;  legume  few  seeded.  6'. 

5—1.     AMPELOPSIS.     46.    72. 

quinquefo'lia  *  (O.  g — to  Ju.  4).  stem  climbing  and  rooting  leaves  quinate  dig- 
itate, smooth ;  leafets  petlolate,  oblong,  acuminate,  toothed  ;  racemes  dichoi- 
omous.  Var.  hirsuta,  leaves  pubescent  on  both  sides  ;  leafets  ovate,  coarse- 
ly toothed. 

16—10.     AMPHICARPA.    32      93 

mono'ica  (wild  bean-vine,  O.  b.  &  w.  Ju.  ©).  stem  slender,  twining,  hairy  back- 
wards ;  leaves  ternate,  ovate  nearly,  smooth  ;  stipules  ovate,  striate.  Var. 
comosa,  has  hirsute  leaves.  Twining.  4  f. 

I  I— 1.     AMGYDALUS.     36.     92. 

Exotic. 
per"sim  (peach,  r.  M.    * ).  cerratures  of  the  leaves  all  acute,  flowers  sessile, 

solitary.     15  f. 

na'na  (flowering  almond.  ^ ).  leaves  ovate,  tapering  to  the  base,  sharply  ser- 
rate. 3  f. 

5—1.     ANAGALLIS.    20.    34. 

arven"six  (red  chickweed,  scarlet  pimpernel,  r.  J.  0).  stem  spreading,  naked, 
procumbent ;  petals  entire,  flat,  w  ith  hairs  at  the  margin.  -V. 
5—1.     ANCHUSA.    41.     42. 

Exotic. 

ojficina'lis  (bugloss.  y.  4).  leaves  lanceolate  ;  spikes  imbricate,  one  sided  ; 
bracts  ovate. 

10—1.    ANDROMEDA.     18.  51. 

calyculit"a  (leather  leaf.  O.  w.  M.  ^).  leaves  lanceolate-oblong,  obsoletely 
serrulate,  sub-revolute,  with  scaly  dots,  rust  coloured  beneath  :  raceme*  ter- 
minal, leafy,  turned  one  way  :  pedicels  short,  solitary,  axillary  :  calyx  acute, 
2  bracted  at  the  base  :  bracts  broad-ovate,  acuminate  :  corolla  oblong-cyhn- 
dric.  Wet.  2.  f  S. 

12—13.    ANEMONE.    26.  61. 

virginia'na  (wind-flower.  O.g-w.  Ju  4).  stem  dichotomous;  leaves  in  threes, 
ternate,  upper  ones  opposite  ;  leafets  gash-lobate  and  serrate-acute ;  pedun- 
cles solitary,  1  flowered,  elongated  ;  seed  oblong,  woolly,  mucronate,  in 
heads.  IS.i.S. 

nemaro'sa  (low  anemone.  O.  r-w.  M.  4).  stem  1  flowered  :  cauline  leaves  in 
threes,  ternate :  leafets  wedge-form,  gash-lobed,  toothed,  acute :  corolla  ,V6 
retailed  ;  seeds  ovate,  with  a  short  style,  hooked.  A  variety,  quinquefolia, 
has  lateral  leafets  deeply  2  cleft.  6.  i.  S. 

thalictro'ides  (rue  anemone.  O.  w.  M.  4).  umbels  involucred  :  radical  leaves 
twice  ternate,  leafets  sub-cordate,  3  toothed  :  involucrum  6  leaved  ;  leafets 
petioled,  uniform :  umbel  few-flowered :  seed  naked,  striate  :  root  tuberous. 
A  variety,  uniflora,  has  a  1  flowered  involucrum  6.  i.  S. 

Exotic. 

horten"sia  (garden  anemone),   radical  leaves  digitate:  divisions  3  cleft ;  cau- 
line ones  ternate,  lanceolate,  connate,  subdivided  :  seed  woolly. 
5—2.    ANETHUM.    45.  60. 

,  Exutir. 

grave'olenx  (dill),  fruit  compressed  :  plant  annual. 

fceni'culum  (fennel),  fruit  ovate:  plant  perennial. 

5—2.    ANGELICA.    45.  60. 

atropurpu'rea  (angelica.  O.g-w  J.  4).  stem  smooth,  coloured  :  leaves  lenwtr, 
partitions  sub-quinate  ;  leafets  ovate,  acute,  gash-serrate,  sub-lobed  ;  3  ter- 
minal ones  confluent  :  petioles  very  large,  inflated.  Wet  meadows.  Root 
purplish.  This  is  the  true  aromatic  angelica.  4.  f.  S. 

*  Cissus  hederacea  of  Mirbel. 


ANTHEMIS,  ARBUTUS.  375 

Exotic. 
archangel"ica  (archangel.  S ).  leaves  with  the  odd  terminal  leafet  lobed. 

17—2.    ANTHEMIS.    49.  55. 

cof'ula  (mayweed.  O.  w.  J.  ©).  receptacle  conic,  chaff  bristly,  seed  naked  : 
leaves  2  pinnate,  leafets  subulate,  3  parted.  10  i.  S. 

Ezotic. 

no'bilis  (chamomile.  w.  Au.  4).  leaves  2  pinnate  ;  leafets  3  parted;  linear-sub- 
ulate, sub-villous  :  stem  branching  at  the  base.  Fragrant.  4  i. 

2—2.     ANTHOXANTHUM.    4.  10. 

odora'tum  (sweet  vernal  grass.  O.  M.  4).  spike  oblong-ovate;  florets  sub- 
pcdunclec),  shorter  than  the  awn.  An  American  variety,  altissimum,  is  larger 
and  of  a  dark  green.  An  elegant  substitute  for  the  Leghorn  grass.  10 — 
18  i.  5. 

13—2.    ANTIRRHINUM.    40.  40. 

lina'ria  (snap-dragon,  y.  Ju.  4.'.  erect,  glabrous  :  leaves  scattered,  lanceolate- 
linear,  crowded  together  :  spikes  terminal,  dense-flowered  :  calyx  glabrous, 
shorter  than  the  spur  Flowers  large — (toad-flax).  Naturalized.  12 — 18  i. 

16—10.     APIOS.     32.  93. 

tubero'sa  (ground-nut.  O.  dark  p.  Ju.  4).  stem  twining  :  leaves  pinnate,  with 
7  lance-ovate  leafets  :   racemes    shorter  than  the  leaves  :    root  tuberous 
farinaceous,  in  taste  resembling  the  cocoa-nut,  and  highly  nutricious.    This 
plant  should  be  cultivated  in  moist  rich  soil,  for  food. 
5—2.    APIUM.    45.  60. 

Exotic. 

petroseli'num  (parsley.  Ju.  <?).  cauline  leaves  linear:  involucrum  minute. 
grave'okns  (celery.  Ju    $ ).  stem  channelled  :  cauline  leaves  wedge-form. 

18—5.    APOCYNUM.     30.  47. 
androscemifo'lium  (dog-bane.   O.  r-w.  J.  4).  stem  erect  and  branching;  leaves 

ovate  :  cymes  lateral  and   terminal :  tube  of  the  corolla  longer  than  the 

calyx,  with  a  spreading  limb.     3f.  S. 
cannab"inum  (O.  g-y.  J.  4).  leaves  lanceolate,  acute,  at  each  end,  smooth  on 

both  sides  :  cymes  paniculate  :    calyx  as  long  as  the  tube  of  the  corol. 

12—5.     AQUILEGIA.     26.  61. 
canaden'sis  (wild  columbine.  O.  r.  &  y.  Ap.  4).  horns  straight  :  stamens  ex- 

sert,  leaves  decompound.    Growing  frequently  in  crevices  of  rocks.     15  i. 

Exotic. 
vu1ga'ri.s  (garden  columbine.  J.  4).  horns  incurved  :  leafy :  stem  and  leaves 

glabrous  ;  leaves  decompound.    The  nectariferous  horns  become  numerous 

by  culture;  one  hollow7  horn  within  another.     15  i. 

14—2.     ARABIS.     39.  63. 
lyra'ta  (w.  A.  5).  stem  and  upper  leaves  smooth  and  glaucous  :  radical  leaves 

lyrate-pinnatifid,  often  pilose  :  stem  branched  at  the  base  ;  pedicels  much 

longer  than  the  calyx.     10  i. 
canaden"sis  (O.  w.  J.  4).  stem  leaves  sessile,  oblong-lanceolate,  narrow  at  the 

base,  pubescent :  pedicels  pubescent,  reflexed  in  the  fruit :  siliq.ues  penda- 

lous,  sub-falcate,  nerved.     2  f.  S. 
rhomWidea  (spring  cress.  O.  w.  M.  4).  leaves  glabrous,  rhomboidal,  repand 

toothed,  the  lower  ones  nearly  round,  on  long  petioles  ;  root  tuberous.    *15  i. 

Wet.  <S. 

5—5.    ARALIA.    46.  59. 

racemo'sa  (spikenard.  O.  w.  J.  4).  spreading  branches:  petioles  3  parted,  the 

partitions  3 — 5  leaved  ;  leafets  often  heart-form  ;  branchlets  axillary,  leafy  : 

umbels  many,  sub-pariiclod,  leafless  above.     Damp.  4f. 
nudicaii'lis  (O.  g-w.  J.  4).  stem  hardly  a  caulis  :  leaf  solitary,  terquinate  :  scape 

shorter  than  the  leaf :  umbels  few.  S. 

10—1.    ARBUTUS.     18.  51. 
UW-UT"SI  (bear-berry,  kinnikinnick.   O.  w-r.   M.  > ).  stem  procumbent :  leaves 

w'edge-obovate,  entire  ;  berry  5  seeded.     Dry,  barren  sand  plains,  &c.  Very 

abundant  about  the  great  lakes. 


376  ARCTIUM,  ASCLEPIAS. 

17—1.    ARCTIUM.    49.  54. 

lapf'pa  (burdock.  O.  r.  Au.  4).  cauline  leaves  heart-form,  petioled,  toothed 
flowers  panicled,  globose  :  calyx  smooth. 

10—3.    ARENARIA.    22.  82. 

1«  Leaves  oblong. 

laterifior"a  (sand-wort.  O.  w.  J.  4).  stem  filiform,  simple:  leaves  ovate,  obtuse, 
Bub-triple-nerved  :  peduncles  lateral, solitary,  elongated,  2  cleft;  oneped.»cel 
middle-bracted ;  corolla  longer  than  the  calyx.  6—10  i. 

18—1.    ARETHUSA.     7.  21. 

bulbo'sa  (arethusa.  O.  r.  J.  4)  leafless :  root  globose;  scape  sheathed,  1  flow- 
ered ;  calyx  with  the  superior  divisions  incurved  ;  lip  sub-crenulate,  Flowers 
large,  sweet-scented.  Damp. 

18—6.    ARISTOLOCHIA.    11.  23. 

serpenta'ria  (O.  p.  J.  4).  leaves  heart-form,  oblong,  acuminate  ;  stem  zigzag, 
ascending  ;  peduncles  radical  ;  lips  of  the  corolla  lanceolate.    (The  Virginia 
snake-root).     There  is  a  variety  with  very  long,  narrow  leaves. 
11—1.    ARMENIACA.    36.  92. 

J-}.r»tic. 

vulga'ris  (apricot  > ).  leaves  sub-cordate  ;  stipules  palmate.  Var.precox  (early 
apricot),  fruit  small,  yellow.  Var.  persicoides  (peach  apricot),  fruit  sub- 
compressed. 

11—5.    ARONIA.    36.  92. 

botri/a'pium  (shad-bush,  june-berry.  O.  w.  Ap.  ^ ).  leaves  oblong-oval,  cuspi- 
date, glabrous  when  mature  (when  first  expanded  lanceolate  and  downy)  ; 
flowers  racemed  ;  petals  linear  ;  germs  pubescent ;  segments  of  the  calyx 
glabrous. 

17—2.    ARTEMISIA.    49.  55. 

Exotic. 

pon"tica  (roman  artemisia).  leaves  downy  beneath ;  cauline  ones  bipinnate  ; 
leafets  linear ;  branches  simple  ;  flowers  roundish,  pedunclcd,  nodding. 

absynth"ium  (wormwood.  4).  stem  branching,  panicled  ;  leaves  hoary  ;  radical 
ones  triply  pinnatifid  ;  divisions  lanceolate,  toothed,  obtuse  ;  cauline  ones  2 
pinnatifid  or  pinnatifid  ;  divisions  lanceolate,  acutish  ;  floral  ones  undivi- 
ded, lanceolate.  Naturalized  in  the  most  mountain  districts  of  New  Ki in- 
land. 

abrota'nttm  (southern-wood.  4.  &  * ).  stem  straight ;  lower  leaves  bipinnate  ; 
upper  ones  hair  form,  pinnate ;  calyx  pubescent,  hemispheric 
19-12.    ARUM.    2.  7. 

triphyl"lum  (indian  turnip,  wild  turnip,  wake  robin.  O.  p.  g.  &  w.  M.  4).  sub- 
caulescent;  leaves  ternate  ;  leafets  ovate,  acuminate,  spadix  club-form; 
spatha  ovate,  acuminate,  peduncled  with  the  lamina  as  long  as  the  spadix. 
One  variety,  virens,  has  a  green  spatha ;  another,  atropurpureum,  has  a  dark- 
purple  spatha  ;  another,  album,  has  a  white  spatha.  1 — 3  f. 

3—2.    ARUNDO.    4.  10. 

canaden"sif  (E.  Au.  4).  panicle  oblong,  loose  ;  glumes  scabrous,  pubescent,  as 
long  as  the  corolla  ;  corolla  awned  on  the  back  ;  hairs  at  the  base  e<j  nai- 
ling the  valves  :  culm  and  leaves  smooth.  3—4  f 

18—12.    ASARUM.     11. 23. 

canaden"se  (white  snake-root,  wild  ginger.  O.  g-p.  M.  4),  leaves  broad-reniform, 
in  pairs ;  calyx  woolly,  deeply  3  parted  ;  the  segments  sub-lanceolate, 
reflexed.  S. 

18—5.    ASCLEPIAS.    30.  47. 

1.   Leaves  apposite. 

xyri'aca  (common  milkweed,  O.  w-p.  Ju.  4),  stem  very  simple  ;  leaves  lanceo- 
late-oblong,  gradually  acute,  downy  beneath  ;  umbels  sub-nodding,  downy, 
3  to  five  feet  high  ;  flowers  in  large,  close  clusters,  sweet-scented — pollinia 
are  fly-traps.  3—5  f.  S. 

incama'ta  (O.  r.  Ju  4),  stem  erect,  branching  above,  downy  ;  leaves  lanceolate, 
sub-downy  both  sides  ;  umbels  mostly  double  at  their  origin  ;  the  little  horn 
of  the  nectary  exsert.  A  variety  pulrhra  is  more  hairy.  Var.  glabra,  almost 
glabrous.  Var.  alba,  has  white  flowers.  Damp.  3f  S, 


ASPARAGUS,  ASTER. 

quadrifo'lia  (O.  w.  p-w.  M.  4),  stem  erect,  simple,  glabrous ;  leaves  ovate,- 
acuminate,  petioled  ;  those  in  the  middle  of  the  stem  are  largest,  and  in 
fours;  umbels  2,  terminal,  lax-flowered  ;  pedicels  filiform.  About  18  inches 
high  ;  flowers  small  and  sweet-scented.  S. 

2.   Leaves  nut  opposite. 

verticilla'ta  (dwarf  milkweed.  O.  g-y.  w.  Ju.  4),  stem  erect,  very  simple,  mark- 
ed with  lines,  and  small  pubescence  ;  leaves  very  narrow-linear,  straight, 
glabrous,  whorled,  scattered  ;  horn  in  the  nectary  exsert.     2  f.  /S. 
6—1.    ASPARAGUS.     11.   12. 

Exotic.  % 

ojjlcina'lis  (asparagus.  Ju.  4),  stem  herbaceous,  unarmed,  sub-erect,  terete  ; 
leaves  bristle-form,  soft ;  stipules  sub-solitary  JNaturalized  in  the  northern 
and  southern  districts,  if. 

6—1.    ASPHODELUS.    10.  16. 

Hxotic. 
lu'teus  (asphodel,  king's  spear.  4),  stem  leafy  ;  leaves  3  sided,  striate. 

21—1.     ASPIDIUM.     55.  5. 

margina'le  (O.  Ju.  4),  front  doubly-pinnate;  lesser  leafets  oblong,  obtuse,  de- 
current,  crenate  :  more  deeply  crenate  at  the  base  ;  fruit  dots  marginal  : 
stipe  chaffy.  2— 3  f.  S. 

17—2.    ASTER.    49.  55. 

1.  Leaves  entire. 

rig"idus  (p.  y.  Au.  4),  leaves  linear,  mucronate,  sub-carinate,  rigid ;  margin 
rough-ciiiate  ;  the  cauline  leaves  reflexed  ;  the  branch  ones  spreading,  sub- 
ulate ;  stem  erect,  somewhat  branched  above  ;  branchlets  1  flowered,  co- 
rymbed  ;  calyx  imbricate,  twice  as  short  as  the  disk  ;  scales  obtusish,  cari- 
nate  ;  rays  about  10  flowered,  reflexed.  Hardly  a  foot  high.  <S. 

linariifo'lius  (O.  p  y.  Au.  4),  leaves  thick-set,  nerveless,  linear,  mucronate, 
dotted,  carinate,  rough,  stiff,  those  on  the  branches  recurved ;  stem  sub- 
decumbent  ;  branches  level-topped,  1  flowered  ;  calyx  imbricate,  of  the 
length  of  the  disk ;  stem  rough,  purplish  S. 

multijlo'rus  (O.  w-y.  Au.  to  Nov.  4;,  leaves  linear,  smoothish  ;  stem  very 
branching,  diffuse,  pubescent ;  branchlets  one-way  ;  calyx  imbricate  ;  scales 
oblong,  scurvy,  acute.  S. 

flexuosus  (L.  O.  y.  w-p.  Au.  4),  very  glabrous  :  leaves  subulate  linear,  some- 
what fleshy,  sub-reflexed  stem  slander,  very  branching  :  branches  and 
branchlets  spreading,  bristle-form,  1  flowered  :  scales  of  the  peduncles  diva- 
ricate, subulate  ;  calyx  imbricate,  scales  close-pressed,  acute.  Salt  marsh* 
es.  S.  .  • 

comifo'lius  (O.  w.  Au.  4),  glabrous;  leaves  oblong-ovate,  acuminate,  short- 
petioled ;  margin  rough  ;  stem  glabrous  ;  panicle  few-flowered  ;  branches 
2  flowered  ;  calyx  sub-imbricate. 

amygdali'nus  (O.  w.  S.  4;),  leaves  lanceolate,  tapering  to  the  base,  acuminate  : 
margin  rough  ;  stem  simple,  level-top-corymbed  at  the  top :  calyx  lax-imbri- 
cate  ;  scales  lanceolate,  obtuse.  Rays  large.  S. 

nova-ang'lice  (O.  b-p.  Au.  4),  leaves  linear-lanceolate,  pilose,  clasping,  auricled 
at  the  base  ;  stem  sub-simple,  pilose,  straight  and  stiff;  flowers  sub-sessile, 
terminal,  crowded  ;  scales  of  the  calyx  lax,  coloured,  lanceolate,  longer  than 
the  disk.  In  rich  soil  it  grows  10  feet  high  ;  flowers  large.  S. 

cya'neus  (O.  b-p.  Au.  4),  leaves  linear-lanceolate,  clasping,  smooth  ;   stem 
wand-like-pani cled,  very  glabrous  ;  branches  racemed  ;  scales  of  the  calyx 
lax,  lanceolate,  equalling  the  disk,  inner  ones  coloured  at  the  apex.    3—4  f. 
Flowers  many  and  large.     This  is  the  handsomest  of  all  asters.     S. 
2.  Leaves  more  or  less  cordate  and  ovate,  serrate,  or  toothed. 

diversifo'lius  (E.  y.  p.  S.  4),  leaves  nearly  entire,  undulate,  pubescent,  sub- 
scabrous  ;  lower  ones  cordate,  ovate,  with  winged  petioles  ;  upper  ones 
lance  oblong ;  panicle  loose,  the  branches  slender,  racemose.  3  f.  S. 

panicula'tus  (O.  b-p.  Au.  to  Nov.  4),  leaves  ovate  lanceolate, sub-serrate,  petio- 
led, glabrous  ;  radical  ones  ovate  heart  form,  serrate,  rough,  petioled  ;  pe- 
tioles naked  ;  stem  very  branching,  glabrous  ;  branchlets  pilose  ;  calyx  lax, 
sub-imbricate.  2—4  f.  Flowers  smallish,  numerous.  S. 

tordifo'lius  (O.  w.  S.  4),  leaves  heart  form,  pilose  beneath,  sharp  serrate,  petio- 

32* 


378  AVENA,  BARTSIA. 

led ;  petioles  winged ;  stem  panicled,  smoothish ;  panicles  divaricate  ;  calyx 
lax,  sub-imbricate.    Flowers  small. 

corymbo'sus  (O.  w.  Au.  4),  leaves  ovate,  sharp  serrate,  acuminate,  smoothish  ; 
lower  ones  heart  form,  petioled  ;  petioles  naked  ;  stem  glabrous,  level  top 
corymbed  above  ;  branches  pilose  ;  calyx  oblong,  imbricate  ;  scales  obtuse, 
very  close  pressed.  12 — 14 1.  Flowers  rather  large. 

3.  Leaves  lanceolate  and  ovate,  lower  ones  gerrate. 

amplexica'ulig  (O.  b.  S.  4),  leaves  ovate  oblong,  acute,  clasping,  heart  form, 
gerrate,  glabrous  ;  stem  panicled,  glabrous  ;  branchlets  1-2  flowered  ;  scales 
of  the  calyx  lanceolate,  closely  imbricate.  Flowers  middle  sized. 

vertic"olor  (y-w.  Au.  4),  leaves  sub-clasping,  broad  lanceolate,  sub-serrate, 
glabrous ;  radical  ones  serrate  in  the  middle;  stem  very  branching,  glabrous ; 
scales  of  the  calyx  lanceolate,  lax,  shorter  than  the  disk.  Flowers  many  and 
large,  elegant.  S. 

tardifto'rus  (b.  Oc.  4),  leaves  sessile,  serrate,  glabrous,  spatulate  lanceolate, 
tapering  to  the  base,  deflected  at  the  margin  and  both  sides  ;  branches  diva- 
ricate ;  calyx  lax,  the  leafets  lanceolate  linear,  sub-equal,  glabrous.  Flowers 
not  middle  size. 

conyzo'ides  (O.  w.  Ju.  4),  leaves  oblong,  3  nerved,  narrow  and  acute  at  the 
base ;  upper  ones  sessile,  sub-entire  ;  lower  ones  petioled,  serrate  ;  stem 
simple,  corymbed  at  the  top  ;  calyx  cylindric,  scurfy  ;  rays  5,  very  short. 
About  12  inches  high  ;  flowers  small. 

Exotic. 

ckinen"sis  (china  aster.  ©),  leaves  ovate,  thickly  toothed,  petioled  ;   canline 
,     ones  sessile,  at  the  base  wedge  form  ;    floral  ones  lanceolate,  entire  ;   stem 
hispid  ;  branches  1  flowered  ;    calyx  foliaceous.     A  variety  has  very  full 
flowers,  various  coloured,  and  very  short  rays.    Cultivated. 
3—2.    AVENA.    4.     10. 
Exotic. 

sati'ya  (oate  J.  ©),  panicled  ;  2  seeded  ;  seeds  smooth,  one  of  them  awned. 
First  discovered  in  the  island  of  Juan  Fernandez.  A  variety  is  awnlesa, 
and  has  black  seeds. 

5—1.    AZALEA.     18.    50. 

nudiflo'ra  (early  honeysuckle,  pinxter  blomachee.  O.  r.  M.  > ),  sub-naked  flow- 
ered ;  leaves  lanceolate  oblong,  or  oval,  smooth  or  pubescent,  uniform-col- 
oured ;  nerves  on  the  upper  side  downy,  and  beneath  bristly  ;  margin  cili- 
ate  ;  flowers  abundant,  not  viscous  ;  their  tubes  longer  than  their  divisions  ; 
teeth  of  the  calyx  short,  oval,  sub-rounded  ;  stamens  very  much  exsert.  A 
variety,  coccinea,  has  scarlet  flowers  and  lanceolate  leaves :  another,  rutilant, 
has  deep  red  flowers,  and  minute  calyx  ;  another,  carnea,  has  pale  red  flow- 
ers, with  red  bases  and  leafy  calyx ;  another,  oZZw,  has  white  flowers,  with  .1 
middling  calyx  ;  another,  papilionacea,  has  red  flowers,  with  the  lower 
divisions  white,  calyx  Isafy  ;  another,/>arttVfl,  has  flesh  coloured  flowers,  5 
parted  to  the  base ;  another,  polyandria,  has  rose  coloured  flowers,  with  from 
10  to  20  stamens.  Woods.  2—6  f. 

21—5.    B^OMYCES.    57.  2. 

ro*"eou$,  crust  uniform,  warty,  white;  peduncle  (podetia)  short,  cylindrici; 
receptacle  sub-globose,  pale  red.  On  the  earth. 

10—1.     BAPTISIA.    32.  93. 

fincto'ria  (wild  indigo,  O.  y.  Ju.  4),  very  glabrous  and  branching  :  leaves  ter- 
nate,  sub-sessile  ;  leafets  wedge  obovate,  round  obtuse  (becoming  black  in 
drying) ;  stipules  obsolete,  oblong,  acute,  much  shorter  than  the  petioles  : 
racemes  terminal :  legumes  ovate,  long  stiped.     2 — 3f. 
Southern. 

aV'ba  (O.  w.  J.  4),  branches  spreading ;  leaves  ternate,  petioled  ;  leafets  lanceo- 
late, wedge  form  at  the  base,  obtuse,  mucronate,  glabrous  ;  stipules  subulate, 
shorter  than  the  petioles  ;  racemes  terminal.  2.  f. 

13—2.    BARTSIA.    40.  35. 

pal"lida  (white  painted  cup.  A.  w-y.  Au.  4),  leaves  alternate,  linear,  undivided ; 
upper  ones  lanceolate  ;  floral  ones  sub-oval,  sub-toothed  at  the  summit ;  all 
are  3  nerved  ;  teeth  of  the  calyx  acute. 


BELLIS,  CAMPANULA.  379- 

17—2.    BELLIS.    49.  55. 

Exotic. 

peren"ni$  (daisy,  w.  &  p.  Ap.  4),  leaves  obovate,  crenate ;  scape  naked,  1 
flowered.  Grows  wild  in  cultivated  fields  in  Pittsfield,  Mass. 

6—1.    BERBERIS.    54.  78. 

vulga'ris  (barberry,  y.  M.  > ),  (branches  punctate  ;  prickles  mostly  in  threes  ,- 
leaves  obovate,  remotely  serrate  ;  flowers  racemed. 
5—2.    BETA.    12.  29. 

Exotic, 
vulga'ris  (beet.  g.  Au.  <J),  flowers  heaped  together;  lower  leaves  ovate. 

19—12.    BETULA.    50.  99. 

populifo'lia  (white  birch,  poplar  birch.  Ju.  > ),  leaves  deltoid,  long  acuminate,, 
unequally  serrate,  very  glabrous ;  scales  of  the  strobile  with  rounded  lateral 
lobes  ;  petioles  glabrous.  30—40  f. 

13—2.     BIGNONIA.    40.  45. 

radi'cans  (trumpet  flower.  O.  r.  &  y.  Ju.  * ),  leaves  pinnate  ;  leafets  ovate, 
toothed,  acuminate ;  corymb  terminal ;  tube  of  the  corolla  thrice  as  long  as 
the  calyx  ;  stem  rooting.  Most  beautiful  climbing  shrub.  One  variety, 
fiammea,  has  yellow  scarlet  flowers  ;  another  variety,  coccinea,  has  bright 
'scarlet  flowers-  Cultivated.  S. 

1—2.    BLITUM.    12.  29. 

capita'tum  (strawberry  blite.  O.  r.  J.  ©),  heads  in  a  terminal  spike,  not  inter- 
mixed with  leaves ;  leaves  triangular,  toothed.  15  i.  S. 

21—6.    BOLETUS.    58.  1. 

ignia'rius,  dilated,  smooth,  cuticle  in  ridges  ;  pileus  hard,  becoming  dark  at 
the  base,  at  the  margin  cinnamon  colour,  beneath  yellowish  white.  Grows 
on  trunks.  General  form  like  a  horse's  hoof.  It  is  called  touch-wood. 

5—1.    BORAGO.    41.  42. 

ojficina'lis  (borage,  b.  Ju.  ©),  leaves  alternate  ;  calyx  spreading. 
14—2.    BRASSICA.    39.  63. 

Exotic. 

ra'pa  (turnip.  3 ),  root  caulescent,  orbicular,  depressed,  fleshy  ;  radical  leaves 
rough  ;  cauline  ones  very  entire,  smooth.  Var.  ruta-baga,  has  a  turbinate, 
sub-fusiform  root. 

olera'cea  (common  cabbage,  including  all  the  varieties  caused  by  culture.  $ ), 
root  caulescent,  terete,  fleshy  ;  leaves  smooth,  glaucous,  repand  lobate. 

3—2.     BRIZA.    4.  10. 

me'dia  (quaking  grass,  rattle-snake  grass  ?  E.  J.  4),  panicle  erect  ;  spikelets 
heart  ovate,  about  7  flowered  ;  calyx  smaller  than  the  flowers.  1  f.  Proba- 
bly introduced. 

13—2.    BUCHNERA.    40.  34. 

america'na  (blue-hearts.  O.  b.  Au.  4)j  stem  simple-;  leaves  lanceolate,  sub-den- 
tate, rough,  3  nerved ;  flowers  remote,  spiked.  In  the  herbarium  this  plant 
becomes  black.  1  f.  &•. 

11—1.    CACTUS.     13.  85. 

opun"tia  (prickly  pear.  E.  y.  J.  4),  proliferous ;  articulations  compressed,  ovate ; 
bristles  fascicular.  The  plant  appears  like  a  series  of  thick  succulent  leaves, 
one  growing  from  the  top  of  another.  S. 

17_4.    CALENDULA.    49.  55. 

Exotic, 
o/wina'lis  (potmarygold.  y.  ©),  seed  keeled,  muricate,  incurved. 

19—12.    CALLA.    2.  7. 

jvdu'stris  (water  arum.  O.  w.  J.  4),  leaves  sub-roundish,  heart  form,  acute ; 
spatha  ovate,  cuspidate,  spreading  when  mature.  Grows  in  wet  places. 

12—13.    CALTHA.    26.  61. 

palu'stris  (O.  y.  Ap.  4),  stem  erect  ;  leaves  cordate,  sub-orbicular,  acute  cre- 
nate. 12—18  i. 

5—1.    CAMPANULA.    29.  52. 

rotundifo'lia  (flax,  bell-flower,  hair-bell.  O.  b.  J.  4),  glabrous  ;  radical  leaves 
heart  reniform,  crenate  ;  cauline  ones  linear,  entire  ;  panicle  lax,  few  flower- 
ered;  flowers  nodding. 


380  CANNABIS,  CASTANF.A. 

american'a  (E  b.  Au.  4),  leaves  ovate  lanceolate,  long  acuminate  ;  lower  ones 
sub-cordate,  with  the  petioles  ciliate  ;    flowers  axillary,  nearly  sessile,  in  a 
terminal  leafy  raceme  ;  corolla  sub-rotate  ;  style  exsert.    Cultivated.    2.  f. 
20-5.    CANNABIS.  53.  98. 

Exotic. 

fati'va  (hemp.  G.  Au.  <3),  stem  pilose  ;  leaves  petioled,  digitate  ;  leafets  lance- 
olate, serrate,  pilose ;  staminate  flowers  solitary,  axillary ;  pistillate  one* 
spiked.  4—10  f. 

5—1.    CAPSICUM.    28.  41. 

Exotic. 

an"nuum  (guinea  pepper,  red  pepper,  cayenne  pepper,  y-g.  w.  Au.  G),  item 
herbaceous  ;  peduncles  solitary.  From  South  America.  10 — 18  i. 

14—2.    CARDAMINE.    39.  63. 

pennsylva'nica  (American  water  cress.  O.  w.  M.  4),  glabrous,  branching  ; 
leaves  pinnate ;  leafets  roundish  oblong,  obtuse,  tooth  angled  ;  silique  nar- 
row, erect.  S. 

17—1.    CARDUUS.    49.  54. 

pectina'ttu  (E.  p.  4 ),  unarmed  ;  leaves  decunrent,  lanceolate,  pectinately  pinna- 
tifid  ;  peduncles  almost  leafless,  terminal,  very  long,  about  1  flowered  ; 
flowers  nodding,  often  discharging  the  pollen  ;  scales  of  the  calyx  linear 
spreading. 

19—3.    CAREX.    3.  9. 

tter"ilis  (barren  sedge.  O.  M.  4),  spikelets  in  fives,  sessile,  approximate ;  fruit 
ovate,  acuminate  or  somewhat  beaked,  2  cleft,  3  sided  compressed,  scabrous 
at  the  margin  ;  equalling  the  ovate  acutish  scale.    8  i.    Wet.     N. 
retrqfl,ex"a  (O.  M.  4),  apikelets  about  in  fours,  alternate,  ovate  sub-approximate, 
sessile,  bracted  ;  fruit  ovate  acutish,  2  toothed,  margin  glabrous  or  scabrous, 
reflex  spreading,  about  equal  to  the  ovate  acute  scale.     1  f.    Woods.     >'. 
17—1.    CARTHAMUS.    49.  54. 

Exotic. 

tincto'rius  (false  saffron,  safflower.  y.  J.  ©),  leaves  ovate,  entire,  serrate 
aculeate. 

5—2.    CARUM.    45.  60. 

Exotic. 

cu'riti  (caraway,  w.  S ),  stem  branching ;  leaves  with  ventricose  sheaths ;  par- 
tial involucrum  none.  \ 
19—12.    CARYA.    50.    94. 

al"ba  (shag  walnut,  shag  bark  hickory,  O.  M.  V ),  Icafets  about?,  long  petioled, 
lance  oblong,  acuminate,  sharply  serrate,  villose  beneath  ;  the  terminal  leafet 
•essile  ;  araent  filiform,  glabrous  ;  fruit  globose,  a  little  depressed  ;  nut  com- 
pressed, oblique.  5. 

10—1.    CASSIA.    33.  93. 

mariland"ica  (wild  senna,  O.  y.  Au.  4),  somewhat  glabrous  ;  leaves  in  8  pairs, 
lance  oblong,  mucronate  ;  flowers  in  axillary  racemes,  and  in  terminal 
panicles ;  legumes  linear,  curved.  An  excellent  mild  cathartic.  B.  River 
alluvion.  2 — 4  f. 

chatruKcrisfa  (cassia,  partridge  pea.  E.  y.  Au.  ©),  somewhat  glabrous  ;  leaves 
linear,  in  many  pairs,  the  glands  on  the  petioles  sub-pedlcelled  ;  two  of  the 
petals  spotted  :  legumes  pubescent.  A  most  elegant  plant.  8 — 16i.  Dry 
sand,  &c.  £. 

nic"titoris  (E.  y.  Ju.  ^ ),  spreading,  pubescent ;   leaves  in  many  pairs,  linear  ; 
glands  of  the  petioles  pedicelled  ;    peduncles  short,  supra-axillary,  2  or  3 
flowered ;  flowers  pentandrous.     The  leaves  of  this  species,  and  of  the  cha- 
maecristi,  possess  a  considerable  degree  of  irritability.     12  i. 
Exotic. 

tenn"a  (Egyptian  senna.  Q),  leaves  in  6  pairs :  petioles  glandless  ;  legume 
reniform. 

19—12.    CASTANEA.    50.  99. 

america'na  (chesnut.  O.  g.  J.  *? ),  leaves  lance-oblong,  sinuate  serrate,  with  the 
»erratures  mucronate,  glabrous  both  sides.  Large  tree.  S. 


CATALPA,  CHELONE.  381 

2—1.    CATALPA.    40.  45. 

cordifo'lia  (M.  w.  &  y.  > ),  leaves  simple,  cordate,  entire,  by  threes ;  flowers  in 
panicles.  40—50  f.  S. 

5—1.    CEANOTHUS.    43.  95. 

america'nus  (New  Jersey  tea.  O.  w^  J.  > ),  leaves  ovate,  acuminate,  serrate 
3  nerved,  pubescent  beneath  ;  panicles  axillary,  long  peduncled,  sub- 
corymbed.  S. 

5—1.    CELASTRUS.    43.  95. 

scan"dens  (false  bittersweet,  staff-tree.  O.  y-w.  J.  > ),  stem  twining  ;  leaves  ob- 
long, acuminate,  serrate  ;  racemes  terminal.  Retains  its  scarlet  berries 
through  the  winter. 

21-5.    CENOMYCE.    57.2. 

pyxada'ta,  frond  foliaceous  ;  divisions  crenulate,  ascending ;  peduncles  all  tur- 
binate,  cup-form,  glabrous,  at  length  warty-granulate,  scabrous,  greenish- 
grey  ;  cups  regular ;  afterwards  the  margin  is  extended  and  proliferous  ;  re- 
ceptacles tawny. 

coccife'ra,  frond  foliaceous,  minute ;  divisions  round,  crenate,  naked  benedth  ; 
peduncles  long-turbinate,  naked,  warty-scabrous,  pale-yellowish,  cinereous 
and  green;  all  bearing  eups,  which  are  wine-glass  form  ;  margin  extended, 
fertile ;  receptacles  rather  large,  at  length  roundish,  scarlet. 
17—3.    CENTAUREA.    49.54. 

Exotic. 

cya'nus  (blue  bottle,  b.  w.  r.  J.  ©),  scales  of  the  calyx  serrate ;  leaves  linear* 
entire ;  lower  ones  toothed.  Naturalized. 

4—1.    CEPHALANTUS.    48. 56. 

occidentalis  (button  bush,  O.  w.  Ju.  ^ ),  leaves  opposite  and  in  threes,  oval,  acu- 
minate. Inflorescence  a  round  head.  Swamps.  Var,  pubescens,  has  the 
leaves  and  branchlets  pubescent.  4 — 5  f.  S. 

10—5.     CERASTIUM.    22.  82. 

vulga'tum  (mouse-ear,  chick  weed.  O.  w.  Ap.  ©),  hirsute,  viscid,  cespitose ; 
leaves  ovate ;  petals  oblong,  about  equal  to  the  calyx  ;  flowers  longer  than 
the  peduncle.  6 — 10  i.  /S. 

10—1.    CERCIS.    33. 93. 

canaden"sis  (red-bud,  judas  tree.  r.  M.  >  ),  leaves  round-heart-form,  acuminate, 
villose  at  the  axils  of  the  nerves;  stipules  minute;  legumes  short  stiped. 
Var.  pubescens,  has  loundish  acute  leaves,  pubescent  beneath.  15 — 30  f. 

21—5.    CETRARIA.    57. 2. 

islan"dica  (the  Iceland  lichen,  Iceland  moss,  C.  Y.),  frond  olive-chesnut-brown, 
at  the  base  reddish-white,  white  beneath ;  divisions  erectish,  sub-linear,  ma- 
ny cleft,  channelled,  tooth  ciliate;  the  fertile  ones  dilated ;  receptacles  close- 
pressed,  flat,  one-coloured  ;  margin  frond-like,  elevated,  entire.  On  sandy 
plains,  as  on  the  barren  plains  near  Beaver-ponds,  in  New  Haven,  where  it 
covers  the  earth  very  densely  in  many  places. 

6—3.    CHAMAEROPS.     1.  11. 

Southern. 

serrula'ta  (E.  Ju.  * ),  caudex  creeping ;  stipes  sharply  serrate ;  fronds  plated 
palmate.  Fronds  2  f. 

14—2.    CHEIRANTHUS.    39.  63. 

Exotic, 
chei'ri  (wall  flower.  J.  4),  leaves  lanceolate,  acute,  glabrous ;  branches  angled  ; 

stem  somewhat  of  a  woody  texture. 

an"nuus  (stock  July-flower.  Ju.  ©),  leaves  lanceolate,  sub-dentate,  obtuse,  hoary; 
silique  cylindric,  with  an  acute  apex. 

12—1.    CHELIDONIUM.    27.62. 

Exotic. 

ma'jus  (celandine,  y.  M.  4),  umbels  axillary,  peduncled ;  leaves  alternate,  pin- 
nate, lobed.  Naturalized. 

13-2.    CHELONE.    40.45. 

glalra  (snake-head.  O.  w.  &  r.  Ju.  4),  leaves  opposite,  lance-oblong,  acumi- 
nate, serrate ;  spikes  terminal,  dense-flowered.  Var.  alba,  leaves  sub-sessile ; 


382  CHENOPODIUM,  CLAYTON!  A. 

flowers  white.  Var.  purpurea,  leaves  short-petioled  ;  flowers  purple.  Var. 
lanceolata,  leaves  lanceolate,  acuminate,  serrate,  sessile,  pubescent  beneath ; 
segments  of  the  calyx  oblong.  Damp. 

5—2.    CHENOPODIUM.     12.  29. 

album  (O.  g.  Ju.  ©),  leaves  rhomboid-ovate,  erose,  entire  behind,  the  upp<T 
ones  oblong,  entire,  seed  smooth.  Var.  viride,  leaves  lance-rhomboid,  sinuate- 
toothed  ;  racemes  ramose,  sub-foliaceous  ;  stem  very  green.  2 — 4  f. 

Wtrys  (oak-of-Jerusalem.  O.  g.  J.  »),  leaves  oblong,  sinuate ;  racemes  naked, 
many  cleft.  Sweet  scented.  12  i.  S. 

10—1.     CHIMAPHILA.     18.  51. 

macvla'ta  (spotted  winter-green.  O,  w.  Ju.  4),  leaves  lanceolate,  rounded  otthe 
base,  remotely  serrate,  marked  with  long  spots  :  scape  2  or  3  flowered  ;  fila- 
ments woolly. 

umbella'ta  (prince's  pine,  bitter  winter-green.  O.  r.  w.  Ju.  4),  leaves  serrate, 
uniformly  green,  wedge-lanceolate,  with  an  acute  base  ;  scape  corymbed  ; 
filaments  glabrous. 

2—1.    CHIONANTHUS.    44.  37. 

virpin"ica  (fringe  tree.  w.  M.  V ),  panicle  terminal,  trifid  ;  peduncles  3  flower- 
ed ;  leaves  acute.  Var.  mtmtanus,  leaves  oval  lanceolate,  coriaceous,  gla- 
brous ;  panicle  dense ;  drupe  oval.  Var.  maritimtts,  leaves  obovate-lanceo- 
late,  membranaceous,  pubescent ;  panicle  very  lax ;  drupe  elliptic.  Berries 
purplish-blue.  S. 

17—2.    CHRYSANTHEMUM.    49.55. 

leucan"themum  (ox-eyed  daisy.  O.  J.  4),  leaves  clasping,  lanceolate,  serrate, 
cut-tootbod  at  the  base  ;  stem  erect,  branching.     12 — 20  i.  S. 
Exotic. 

parthe'nium.  (feverfew),  leaves  petioled,  compound,  flat ;  leafets  ovate,  gashed  ; 
peduncles  branching,  corymbed  ;  stem  erect. 

corona'rium  (garden  crysanthemum.  Au  <"),  leaves  bipinnatifid,  acute,  broader 
outwards ;  stem  branching. 

8—2.    CHRYSOSPLENIUM.     13.  84. 

oppontifpflium  (golden  saxifrage,  water-carpet.  O.  y-r  M.  4),  leaves  opposite, 
roundish,  slightly  crenate,  tapering  for  a  little  distance  to  the  petiole.  In 
rivulets,  springs,  &c. 

17—1.    CICHORIUM.    49.  53. 

in"fyfnu  (succory  or  endive.  O.  b.  Ju.  4),  flowers  axillary,  in  pairs,  sessile  ; 
leaves  runcinate. 

Exotic. 

endiv"ia  'garden  endive,  b.  & ),  peduncles  axillary,  in  pairs  ;  one  long,  1  flower- 
ed, the  other  short,  about 4  flowered  ;  leaves  oblong,  denticulate.  Var.  crit- 
//«y/i,  has  fringed  leaves  and  solitary  flowers. 

5—2.    CICUTA.    45.  60. 

macuUi'ta  (O.  w.  Ju.  4),  si-rratures  of  the  leaves  mucronate  ;  petioles  memhra- 
naceous,  2  lobed  at  the  apex.  Damp.  3—6  f. 

Exotic. 

viro'sa  (water  hemlock  4),  umbels  opposite  to  the  leaves;  petioles  margined, 
obtuse;  leafets  ternate,  acutely  serrate.  Root  containing  a  yellow  juice. 

—1.     CIRCLE  A.    48.  88. 

lutetia'na  (O.  Aug  r— w.  4)  stem  erect;  leaves  ovate,  remotely  toothed, 
opaque,  nearly  smooth.  1—2  f.  S. 

12—1.    CITRUS.    18.  70. 

Exotic. 

rne'dica  'lemon  tree.  w.  J.  >),  leaves  ovate,  acuminate,  with  linear,  wingless 
petiole.  Var.  limon  (lime  tree)  bears  smaller  fruit,  which  is  almost  round. 
4— 10  f. 

auTtm"tium  '•  orange  tree.  w.  ^ ),  leaves  oval,  acuminate,  with  the  petioles  wing- 
ed or  margined. 

5—1.    CLAYTONIA.     13.  86. 

virfrin"ica  (O.  w.  r.  A.  4),  leaves  linear-lanceolate ;  petals  obovate,  retuse  ; 
leaves  of  the  calyx  somewhat  acute  ;  root  tuberous.  Var.  latifolia,  leaves 
ovate-lanceolate  ;  leaves  of  the  calyx  obtuse.  6 — 12  i. 


CLEMATIS,  CONVALLARIA.  383 

12—13.    CLEMATIS.    26.  61. 

virgin"ica  (virgin's  bower.  O.  w.  Ju.  > ),  climbing;  leaves  ternate;  leaflets 
ovate,  sub-cordate,  gash-toothed  and  lobate  ;  flowers  panicled,  dioecious. 
15_20  f.  S. 

Exotic. 

flam"mula  (sweet  virgin's  bower.  > ),  lower  leaves  laciniate  ;  upper  ones  simple, 
entire,  lanceolate, 

6—1.    CLEOME.    25.  64. 

dodecan"dra  (O.  r-w.  Ju.  ©),  viscid-pubescent ;  leaves  ternate  ;  leafets  elliptical 
oblong  ;  flowers  generally  dodecandrous.  1  f. 

10—1.     CLETHRA.     18.  51. 

alnifo'lia  (E.  w.  Au.  * ),  leaves  wedge-obovate,  acute,  coarse-serrate,  glabrous, 
both  sides  one  colour ;  racemes  spiked,  simple,  bracted,  hoary-tomentose. 
4— Sf. 

17—1.    CNICUS.    49.  54. 

lanceola'tus  (common  thistle  O.  p.  J.  $),  leaves  decurrent,  hispid,  pinnatifid  ; 
divisions  2  lobed,  divaricate,  spinose ;  calyx  ovate,  with  spider-web-like 
pubescence  ;  scales  lanceolate,  spinose,  spreading.  2 — 4  f  S. 
arven"sis  (Canada  thistle.  O.  p.  J.4),  leaves  sessile,  pinnatifid,  ciliate,  spinose  ; 
stem  panicled  ;  calyx  ovate,  mucronate  ;  scales  broad -lanceolate,  close- 
pressed  ;  margin  woolly.  2 — 3  f. 

14_1.    COCHLEARIA.     39.  63. 

Exotic. 

armora'cia  (horse-radish,  w.  J.  4),  radical  leaves  lanceolate,  crenate  ;  cauline 
ones  gashed.  Naturalized. 

19—3.     COIX.     4.  10. 

lach"ryma  (job's  tear.  Ju.  ©),  culm  semi-terete  above  ;  flowers  naked  ;  fruit 
ovate. 

2—1.    COLLINSONIA.    42.  39. 

canaden"sis  (O.  y.  Au.  4),  leaves  broad -cor  date,  ovate,  glabrous  :  teeth  of  the 
calyx  short,  subulate  :  panicle  terminal,  compound.  <S. 
16—10.     COLUTEA.     32.  93. 

vesica'ria  (senna  herb.y.  Ju),  leaves  pinnate  ;  leafets  ovate  :  stem  herbaceous, 
decumbent,  villose  :  legumes  orbicular,  inflated. 

3_1.    COMMELINA.     6.  13. 

angustifolia  <day-flower.  E.  b.  Ju.  4),  assurgent,  weak,  somewhat  glabrous  : 
leaves  lance-linear,  very  acute,  flat,  glabrous  :  sheathes  subciliate  :  bracts 
(or  involucra)  peduncled,  solitary,  short-cordate.  12  i.  £. 

19—3.    COMPTONIA.    50.  99. 

asplenifo'lia  (sweet  fern.  O.  g.  Ap.  ^),  leaves  long-linear,  alternately  crenate- 
pinnatifid.  18— 48  i.  S. 

21_4.     CONFERVA.     57.  2. 

ru'fa,  threads  ramose,  capillary,  straight,  obsoletely  geniculate  ;  branches  and 
branchlets  opposite,  remotish  ;  length  of  the  joints  equalling  the  diameter. 
In  the  sea.  Reddish  yellow,  shining,  in  fascicles  ;  threads  of  the  thickness 
of  human  hair,  2  inches  and  longer,  flaccid,  soft. 

5_2.    CONIUM.    45.  60. 

rnacula'tum  (poison  hemlock.  O.  w.  Ju.   4),  stem  very  branching,  spotted  ; 
lt«ives  very  compound ;  seed  striate.     Var.  crispatulum,  leaves  crisped ';  ulti- 
mate divisions  acuminate,  or  terminated  in  a  bristle.    2 — 4  f. 
6—1.     CONVALLARIA.     11.  12. 

1.  CoroZ  deeply  4  parted,  spreading  :  stamens  4  :  berry  2  celled.    (Flowers  in  a 

terminal  raceme). 

bifoflia  (6.  w.  M.  J.  4),  stem  2  leaved  ;  leaves  or  short  petioles  cordate-oblong, 
very  smooth  on  both  sides  ;  racemes  simple,  terminal  ;  flowers  tetrandrous. 
4 — 6  i. 

2.  Corolla  6  parted,  spreading  :  filaments  divergent,  attached  to  the  base  of  the 

segments.     (Flowers  in  a  terminal  raceme.) 

stetta'ta  (O.  w.  M.  4),  stem  with  alternate,  clasping,  oval-lanceolate  leaves  ; 
raceme  simple,  terminal.  8 — 18  i. 


384  CONVOLVULUS,  CRAT^EGUS. 

trifo'Ua  (O.  w.  3.  4),  stem  about  3  leaved  ;  leaves  alternate,  ovate-lanreolate, 
contracted  at  the  base  ;  raceme  simple,  terminal,  few-flowered.  6 — 10.  i. 

racemo'sa  (spiked  solomon  see.  O.  y-w.  M.  4),  stem  with  alternate  leaves  ; 
sessile,  oblong-oval,  acuminate,  nerved,  pubescent ;  flowers  in  a  terminal 
raceme-panicle.  18— 24  i. 

Southern. 

maja'tis  (lily  of  the  valley.  A.  w.  J.  4),  scape  naked,  smooth  ;  leaves  oval- 
ovate. 

5—1.  CONVOLVULUS.  29.  43. 

re'pens  (field  bind-weed.  O.  w.  &  r.  J  4),  twining  ;  leaves  sagittate,  with  the 
apex  acute  and  the  lobes  truncate,  entire  (some  obtuse)  ;  bracts  acute,  longer 
than  the  calyx,  and  shorter  than  the  middle  of  the  corolla  :  peduncle  angled, 
exceeding  the  petiole.  N. 

pandura'tus  (mecnoacan.  w.  &  r.  Ju.  4),  twining,  pubescent  :  leaves  broad- 
cordate,  entire  or  lobed,  guitar-form :  peduncles  long ;  flowers  fascicled  : 
calyx  glabrous,  awnless  ;  corolla  tubular-bell-form.  Resembles  rhubarb  in 
its  effects. 

Exotic. 

bata'tus  (sweet  potato,  Carolina  potato,  w-r.  Ju.  4),  creeping,  tuberous  ;  leaves 
cordate,  hastate,  angular-lobed,  5  nerved,  smoothish  ;  peduncles  long  ;  flow- 
ers fascicled ;  corolla  sub-campanulate.  Cultivated. 

purpu'reus  (common  morning  glory,   b.   p.  J.  Q),  pubescent ;  leaves  cordate, 
entire  ;  peduncles  2  to  5  flowered  ;  pedicels  nodding,  thickened  ;  divisions 
of  the  calyx  lanceolate  ;  capsules  glabrous.     Cultivated. 
12—13.    COPTIS.    26.  61. 

trifu'lia  (gold  thread.  O.  w.  M.  4),  scape  1  flowered  ;  leaves  ternate.  Roots 
long,  filiform,  golden-yellow.  Tonic  bitter.  B.  2 — 4  i.  S. 

5—2.    CORIANDRIUM.    45.  60. 

Exotic, 
sati'mun  (coriander,  w.  J.  ©),  fruit  globose ;  calyx  and  style  permanent. 

4—1.    CORNUS.    45.  58. 
canaden"si*  (dogweed,  low  cornel.  O.  w.  M.  4),  herbaceous  ;  leaves  at  the  top, 

whorled,  veiny  ;  involucre  ovate,  acuminate  ;  fruit  globose.    4 — 8  i.  S. 
flo'rida  (false  box,  dogwood  tree.  w-y.  M.  ^ ),  leaves  ovate,  acuminate  :  involu- 
cre 4,  very  large,  somewhat  obcordate  :  fruit  ovate.     15—30  f.  S 
circina'ta  (O.  w.  J.  > ),  branches  warly  ;  leaves  broad-oval,  acuminate,  white- 
downy  beneath  ;  cymes  depressed.    6 — 8  £  5. 

16—10.    CORONILLA.    32.  93. 

em"erus  (coronilla.  y.  4),  stem  angled,  woody  ;  peduncles  about  3  flowered  ; 
claws  of  the  petals  about  thrice  as  long  as  the  calyx. 

16—5.    CORYDALIS.    24.  62. 

cucutta'ria  (colic  weed.  O.  y.  &  w.  M.  4),  corolla  2  spurred  ;  scape  naked  ; 
raceme  simple,  1  sided  ;  nectaries  divaricate,  of  the  length  of  the  corolla  ; 
style  enclosed.  8—12  i.  S. 

19—12.    CORYLUS.    50.  99. 

america'na  (hazle  nut.  O.  Ap.  > ),  leaves  roundish,  cordate,  acuminate  ;  calyx 
roundish-campanulate,  larger  than  the  sub-globose  nut  ;  border  dilated, 
coarsely  serrate.  3—5  f.  S. 

11—5.    CRAT^GUS.    36.  92. 

cocrtnea  (thorn-bush.  O.  w.  M.  > ),  thorny  ;  leaves  long-petioled,  ovate,  acute- 
ly-lobed,  serrate,  glabrous ;  petioles  and  pubescent  calyx  glandular ;  flowers 
pentagynous.  Var.  viridis,  has  lance-ovate  leaves,  subtrilobate ;  stem  un- 
armed. 

puncta'ta  (common  thorn-tree.  O.  w.  M.  > ),  thorny  or  unarmed  ;  leaves  wedge- 
obovate,  sub-plicate,  glabrous,  serrate  ;  calyx  villose  ;  divisions  subulate, 
entire.  S. 

Exotic. 

oxycanttha  (quickset,  w.  M.  > ),  leaves  obtuse,  somewhat  3  cleft,  serrate,  gla- 
brous ;  peduncles  and  calyx  somewhat  glabrous  ;  segments  of  the  calyx 
lanceolate,  acute ;  styles  2.  Naturalized. 


CROCUS,  CYPRIPEDIUM.  385 

3—1.    CROCUS.    6.  18. 

officina'lis  (saffron,  y.  4),  leaves  linear,  with  reyolute  margins  ;  stigma  exsert, 
with  long-linear  segments.  Var.  sativus,  having  violet  corollas . 

sagitta'lis  (rattle-box.  E.  y.  Ju.  ©),  hirsute,  erect,  branching  ;  leaves  simple, 
lance-oblong  ;  stipules  lanceolate,  acuminate,  clecurrent ;  racemes  opposite 
to  the  leaves,  about  3  flowered  ;  corolla  less  than  the  calyx.  S. 
16—10.    CROTALLARIA.     32.  93. 

sagitta'lis  (rattle-box,  y.  Ju.  ©),  hairy,  erect,  branching ;  leaves  simple,  ovate- 
lanceolate  :  stipules  lanceolate,  acuminate,  decurrent ;  racemes  opposite,  the 
leaves  about  3  flowered  :  corolla  smaller  than  the  calyx.     12  i.  S. 
19—16.    CUCUMIS.     34.  97. 

\  Exotic. 

angu'ria  (prickly  cucumber),  leaves  palmate-sinuate  ;  fruit  globose,  echinate. 

meflo  (muskmelon.  y.  Ju.  ©),  angles  of  the  leaves  rounded  ;  pome  oblong,  toru- 
lose.  Sweet  scented. 

sati'vus  (cucumber,  y.  Ju.  ©),  angles  of  the  leaves  straight ;  pomaceous  berry 
oblong,  scabrous.  Brought  from  Asia. 

19—16.    CUCURBITA.    34.  97. 
Exotic. 

ovif'era  (egg-squash.  ©),  leaves  cordate,  angled,  5  lobed,  denticulate,  pubes- 
cent ;  pomaceous  berry  with  fillet-like  stripes  lengthwise. 

pep"o  (pumpkin,  y.  Ju.  ©),  leaves  cordate  obtuse,  sub  5  lobed,  denticulate  : 
pomaceous  berry  roundish  or  oblong,  smooth.  Var.  potiro,  has  the  fruit 
more  or  less  flattened.  From  Asia. 

dtntV'lus  watermelon,  y.  Au.  ©),  leaves  5  lobed  ;  the  lobes  sinuate-pinnatifid, 
obtuse  :  pomaceous  berry  oval,  smooth.  Fruit  watery,  often  striped.  From 
Africa  and  the  south  of  Asia. 

lagena'ria  (gourd,  calabash,  w.  Au.  ©),  leaves  cordate,  round-obtuse,  pubes- 
cent, denticulate,  with  2  glands  at  the  base  on  the  under  side:  pomaceous 
berry  clavate,  somewhat  woody. 

11—1.    CUPHEA.    54.  91. 

viscosis"sima  (wax-bush.  E.  p.  J.  >),  viscous  ;  leaves  opposite,  petioled  ovate- 
oblong  ;  flowers  with  12  stamens,  lateral,  solitary  ;  peduncles  very  short.  S. 
19—15.    CUPRESSUS.    51.   100. 

thyai'des  (white  cedar.  O.  M.  5 ),  branchlets  compressed  ;  leaves  imbricate  four 
ways,  ovate,  tubercled  at  the  base  ;  strobile  globular.  S. 

5—2.     CUSCUTA.    29.  43. 

amerioa'na  (dodder.  O.  w.  Au.  ©),  flowers  peduncled,  umbelled,  5  cleft  ;  stig- 
ma capitate.  A  bright  yellow  leafless  vine,  twining  round  other  weeds  in 
damp  places. 

europe'a  (E.  w.  Au.  ©),  flowers  sub-sessile  ;  stigma  acute  ;  stamens  4  or  5. 

pulcheV'lum  (grass  pink.  O.  r.  Ju.  4),  radical  leaves  ensiform,  nerved  ;  scape 
few  flowered  ;  lip  erect,  slender  at  the  base  ;  lamina  spread  ;  disk  concave, 
bearded.  Var.  graminifolia,  leaves  1—2  lines  broad  ;  bracted  ones  acumin- 
ate. 12—18  i.  S. 

17—1.    CYNARA.    49.  54. 

Exotic. 

scol"ymus  (garden  artichoke.  4),  leaves  sub-spinose,  pinnate  ;  scales  of  the 
calyx  ovate.  Naturalized. 

5—1.    CYNOGLOSSUM.    41.  42. 

officina'le  (hound-tongue.  O.  p.  Ju.  3),  very  soft-pubescent;  leaves  broad- 
lanceolate,  sessile ;  panicled  racemes. 

18—2.    CYPRIPEDIUM.     7.  21. 

pubes»cens  (yellow  ladies'  slipper,  y.  M.  4),  stem  leafy;  lobe  of  the  style 
triangular-oblong,  obtuse  ;  outer  petals  oblong-ovate,  acuminate  ;  inner  ones 
very  long,  linear,  contorted  ;  lip  compressed,  shorter  than  the  petals.  S. 

specta'bile  (gay  ladies'  slipper.  O.  w.  &  p.  J.  4),  stem  leafy ;  lobe  of  the  style 
oval-cordate,  obtuse;  outer  petals  broad-oval,  obtuse ;  lip  longer  than  the  pe- 
tals, split  before.  S. 

ncau'lc  (low  ladies'  slipper.  O.  w.  &  p.M.  4),  scape  leafless,  1  flowered ;  radical 
33 


386  DACTYLIS,  DROSERA. 

%   '". 

leaves  2,  oblong,  obtuse ;  lobe  of  the  style  round ish-rhomboidal,  acuminate, 
deflexed ;  petals  lanceolate :  lip  shorter  than  the  petals,  cleft  before.     1  f.  S. 

3—2.    DACTYLIS.    4.  10. 
glamera'ta  (E.  J.  4)f  panicle  glomerate;  leaves  carinate.    2 — 3  f.  S. 

11—13.    DALIBARDA.    35.  92. 

fragardides  (dry  straw-berry.  E.  y.  M.  4),  leaves  ternate  ;  leafets  wedge-form, 
gash-serrate,  ciliate ;  peduncles  many-flowered  ;  tube  of  the  calyx  obconic. 

8—1.    DAPHNE.    31.  25. 

Exotic. 

meze'reum  (mezereon).  M.  >),  flowers  sessile,  oauline,  in  threes;  leaves  lance- 
olate. 

5—1.    DATURA.    28.  41. 

stramonium  (thorn  apple.  O.  w-b.  Au.  ©),  pericarps  spinose,  erect,  ovate ;  leaves 
ovate,  glabrous,  angular-dentate.  S. 

5— 2.— DAUCUS.    45.  60. 

cardta  (carrot,  w.  J.  S ),  seeds  hispid ;  petioles  nerved  underside ;  divisions  of 
the  leafets  narrow-linear,  acute.  2 — 3  f. 

12—2.    DELPHINIUM.    26.61. 

Exotic. 

con*d"idum  (larkspur,  b.  Ju.  ©),  nectaries  1  leaved ;  stem  subdivided.  Natu- 
ralized. 

14—2.  DENTARIA.    39.  63. 

diphyMa  f  tooth-root.  O.  y.  M.  4),  stem  2  leaved ;  leafets  ternate,  sub-ovate, 
unequally  and  incisely  dentate ;  root  toothed.  6—8  i.  S. 

10—2.    DIANTHUS.    22.82. 

armefria  (pink.  r.  Ju.  C),  flowers  aggregate,  fascicled ;  scales  of  the  calyx  lan- 
ceolate, villose,  equalling  the  tube.    1  f. 
Exotic, 
barba'tus  (sweet-william,  r.  &  w.  Ju.  4),  flowers  fascicled  ;  scales  of  the  calyx 

ovate-subulate,  equalling  the  tube ;  leaves  lanceolate. 

caryophyVlus  (carnation  or  pink.  r.  &  w.  4),  flowers  solitary ;  scales  ofthe  calyx 
sub-rhomboid,  very  short;  petals  crenate,  beardless  ;  Iravcn  linear-subulate, 
channelled.     By  rich  culture  the  stamens  mostly  change  to  petals. 
chineri'si*  (china  pink.  Ju.  &),  flowers  solitary  ;  scales  of  the  calyx  subulate, 

spreading,  leafy,  equalling  the  tube ;  petals  crenate ;  leaves  lanceolate. 
pluma'rius  (single  pink.  r.  &  w.  4),  flowers  solitary;  scales  of  the  calyx  sub- 
ovate,  very  short  and  obtuse,  awnless  ;  corolla  many  cleft,  with  the  throat 
hairy. 

5-1.    DIERVILLA.  .  48.  58. 

canadcn"sis  (bush  honey-suckle.  O.  y.  Ju.  > ),  peduncles  axillary  and  terminal, 
dichotoraous,  3  flowered  ;  leaves  ovate,  serrate,  acuminate.    2 — 3  f.  S. 
13—2.    DIGITALIS.    40.40. 

Exotic. 

purpu'rea  (foxglove,  p.  Ju.  3 ),  leafets  ofthe  calyx  ovate,  acute ;  corolla  obtuse ; 
upper  lip  entire ;  leaves  lance-ovate,  rugose. 

10—1.    DION.EA.    20.68. 

Southern. 

muscip"ula  (Venus'  fly-trap.  E.  w.  Ju.  4),  radical  leaves,  with  terminal  ciliate 
appendages,  somewhat  resembling  a  rat-trap ;  this  is  suddenly  closed  on  being 
irritated. 

4—1.    DIPSACUS.     18. 56. 

sylves"tris  (wild  teasel.  O.  w-b.  Ju.  <J ),  leaves  rarely  connate,  opposite  ;  scales 
of  the  receptacle  straight;  in  volucrum  curved  upward.  3— 4  f.  S. 

5—1.    DROSERA.    20.  68. 

rotundifo'lia  (sundew.  O.  y-w.  Au.  4),  scape  simple ;  leoves  nearly  orbicular, 
narrowed  at  the  base ;  petioles  long,  downy.  Wet  or  damp.  4—8  i.  S. 

5—1.     ECHIUM.    41. 42. 

vulga're  (blue  thistle,  b.  M.  <S),  stem  tuberculate-hispid  ;  leaves  lance-linear, 
hispid ;  spikes  lateral ;  stamens  longer  than  the  corolla.  2—3  f.  S. 


ELEPHANTOPUS,  EUPATORIUM.  387 

17—5.    ELEPHANTOPUS.    49.  55. 

carolinia'nus  (elephant-foot  r.  Au.  4),  radical  and  cauline  leaves  oblong,  nar- 
rowed at  the  base,  pilose  on  both  sides  ;  stem  erect,  pilose,  leafy.  2  f.  S. 

10—1.    EPIG^EA.     18.  51. 

re'pens  (trailing  arbutus.  O.  r.  &  w.  Ap.  ^ ),  stem  creeping;  branches  and  peti- 
oles very  hirsute  ;  leaves  cordate-ovate,  entire ;  corolla  cylindric. 

8—1.    EPILOBIUM.     17.  88. 

spica'tum  (willow  herb.  O.  p.  Ju.  4),  leaves  scattered,  lance-linear,  veiny,  gla- 
brous ;  flowers  unequal ;  stamens  declined.  4 — 6  £ 

13—2.    EPIPHEGUS.    40.  35. 

virginia'nus  (beech  drops,  cancer  root.  O.  y.  p.  Ju.  4),  stem  very  branching  ; 
flowers  alternate,  distant ;  calyx  short,  cup-form,  shorter  than  the  capsule. 
The  whole  plant  is  yellowish- white  and  of  a  naked  appearance.  8 — 12  i.  S. 
Astringent. 

21—1.     EQUISETUM.    55.5. 

hyema'le  (scouring  rush.  E,  Ju.  4),  stems  erect,  very  scabrous,  bearing  spikes  at 
the  apex ;  sheaths  2  coloured,  withering  at  the  base  and  apex  ;  teeth  with  ca- 
ducous awns.  2 — 3  f.  S. 

8—1.    ERICA.    18.  51. 

Exotic 

pubes"cens  (downy  heath,  r.  M.)  corolla  linear,  pubescent,  with  the  limb  erect; 
capsule  glabrous ;  leaves  fringed. 

17—2.    ERIGERON.    49.55. 

belUdifo'lium  (O.  w-p.  M  4),  hairy,  gray ;  radical  leaves  obovate,  sub-serrate ; 
stem  leaves  remote,  oblong-ovate,  araplexicaul,  entire  ;  stem  3-5  flowered ; 
rays  nearly  twice  as  long  as  the  hemispherical  calyx.  12 — 18  i.  S. 
phiktdel"phicum  (O,  w-p.  J.  4),  pubescent;  leaves  wedge-oblong,  sub-serrate; 
cauline  ones  half-clasping ;  ray  florets  capillary,  as  long  as  the  disk ;  stem 
branched  above,  many  flowered,  2 — 3  f.  <S. 

15—5.    ERODIUM.    14.  73. 

Exotic, 
cico'nmm  (stork-bill  geranium.  ©),  peduncled  many  flowered  ;  leaves  pinnate  ; 

leafets  pinnatifid,  toothed;  petals  oblong, obtuse;  stem  ascending. 
cicuta'rium  (hemlock  geranium,  p.  Ap.  ©),  peduncles  many  flowered;  leaves 
pinnate ;  leafets  sessile,  pinnatifid,  gashed ;  corolla  larger  than  the  calyx ; 
stem  prostrate,  hirsute. 

moscha'tum  (musk  geranium.  ©),  peduncles  many  flowered;  leaves  pinnate; 
leafets  sub-petioled,  oblong,  gash-toothed ;  petals  equalling  the  calyx ;  stem 
procumbent. 

14—2.     ERYSIMUM.    39.  63. 

ampWium  (water  radish.  O.  y.  J.  4),  silique  (or  rather  sillicle)  oblong  ovate, 
declined ;  leaves  lance  oblong,  pinnatifid  or  serrate ,  petals  longer  than  the 
calyx.  Wet.  1—2  f.  S. 

palus"tre  (y.  Ju.  ©),  leaves  lyrate  pinnatifid;  lobes  confluent,  unequally  dentate, 
smooth ;  petals  as  long  as  the  calyx ;  siliques  short  turgid ;  root  spindle- 
torm.  18i.  S. 

6—1.    ERYTHRONIUM.    11.  14. 

america'num*  (dog  tooth  violet,  adder's  tongue.  O.  y.  Ap.  4),  leaves  lance  ova*1, 
punctate  ;  petals  oblong  lanceolate,  obtuse  at  the  point ;  inner  ones  2  dentate 
near  the  base;  style  clavate  ;  stigma  entire,  (stigmas  3.)  6 — 8  i. 

13—2.     EUCHROMA.    40.  40. 

cocci  nea  (painted  cup.  O.  y.  &  r.  J.  $ ),  leaves  alternate,  linear,  gash  pinnatifid  : 
'divisions  linear  ;  bracts  dilated,  generally  3  cleft,  longer  than  the  flowers ; 
calyx  2  cleft,  about  equal  to  the  corolla  ;  divisions  retuse,  emarginate. 
Mowers  yellow,  with  scarlet  bracts.  One  variety,  pollens,  has  yellow 
bracts.  10 — 16  i.  S. 

17—1.    EUPATORIUM.    49.  55. 

Calyxes  more  than  5  flowered, 
purpu'reum  (purple  thorough-wort,  joe-pye.  O.  p.  Au.  4),  leaves  in  fours  or 

*  Called  by  some  writers  dens  cam's. 


388  EUPHRASIA,  GALIUM. 

fives,  petioled,  lance  ovate,  serrate,  rugose  veined,  roughish  ;  stem  hollow. 
4— 6f.  S. 

perfolia'tum  (boneset,  thorough- wort.  O  w.  Au.  4),  leaves  connate  perfoliate, 
oblong  serrate,  rugose,  downy  beneath  ;  stem  villose,  2  f.  S. 

13—2.    EUPHRASIA.    40.  35. 

officina'lis  (eyebright.  w.  Ju.  C),  leaves  ovate,  obtusely  toothed  ;  lower  divi- 
sions of  the  lip  emarginate. 

19—12.    FAGUS.    50.  99. 

ferrugin"ea  (red  beech.  O.  y-w.  M.  > ),  leaves  ovate  oblong,  acuminate,  pu^ 
bescent  beneath,  coarsely  toothed,  at  the  base  obtuse,  sub-cordate  oblique  ; 
'  nuts  ovate,  acutely  3  sided. 

23—3.    FICUS.    53.  98. 

Exotic. 

ca'rica  (fig  tree.  g.  Ju.  >),  leaves  cordate,  3  or  5  lobed,  repand  toothed  ;  lobes 
obtuse,  scabrous  above,  pubescent  beneath.  5 — 8  f. 

11—13.    FRAG  ARIA.    35.  92. 

virginia'na  (wild  strawberry.  O.  w.  M.  4),  calyx  of  the  fruit  spreading ;  hairs 
on  the  petioles  erect,  on  the  peduncles  close  pressed  ;  leaves  somewhat  gla- 
brous above. 

Exotic. 

ve*"ca  (English  strawberry,  w.  m.  4),  calyx  of  the  fruit  reflexed  ;  hairs  on  the 
petioles  spreading,  on  the  peduncles  close  pressed. 

20—2.    FRAXINUS.    44.  37. 

acumina'ta  (white  ash.  O.  w-g.  M.  >),  leafets  petioled,  oblong,  shining, 
acuminate,  very  entire,  or  slightly  toothed,  glaucous  beneath  ;  flowers 
calycled.  S. 

6—1.    FRITILLARIA.    M).  14. 

Exotic. 

imperia'lis  (crown  imperial,  r.  &  y.  M.  4),  flowers  under  a  leafy  crown,  nod- 
ding ;  leaves  lance  linear,  entire.  From  Persia. 

malea'gru  (fritillary,  guinea-hen  flower,  p.  &  y.  M.  4),  leaves  alternate,  linear, 
channelled  ;  stem  1  flowered ;  nectary  linear.    Flower  checkered. 
3—1.    FUCHSIA.    17.  88. 

Exotic. 

magcUa'nica  (ear-drop,  r.),  peduncles  axillary,  1  flowered ;  leaves  opposite  or 
in  threes,  very  entire.  Flowers  pendulous. 

21—4.    FUCUS.    57.  2. 

lo'rens,  stem  very  short,  dilated  into  a  cup,  sending  out  a  fusiform,  dichotoraous 
receptacle.  In  the  ocean. 

16-6.    FUMARIA.    24.  62. 

Exotic. 

officina'lis  (fumitory,  r.  J.  ©),  stem  branching,  spread  ;  leaves  more  than  de- 
compound ;  leafets  wedge  lanceolate,  gashed.  Naturalized.  6—10  i. 

21—2.    FUN  ARIA.    56.  4. 

hygromeVrica  (hygrometer  moss),  leaves  ovate,  acute,  concave,  entire,  inflected  ; 
capsules  swelling,  drooping,  pear  form ;  pedicles  very  long,  twisting  spirally 
when  dry. 

6—1.    GALANTHUS.    6.  17. 

nivaTis  (snow  drop.  w.  Ap.  4),  leaves  linear,  keeled,  acute,  radical ;  scape  1 
flowered. 

4—1.    GALIUM.    47.  57. 
Fruit  glabrous. 

trif'idum  (bed  straw.  E.  w.  Ju  4),  stem  procumbent,  scabrous  backwards  ; 
cauline  leaves  in  fives  ;  branch  leaves  in  fours,  linear,  obtuse,  scabrous  at 
the  margin  and  on  the  nerves  ;  fascicle  terminal,  few  flowered  ;  pedicels 
short ;  corollas  mostly  3  cleft.  S. 

asprel"lum  (rough  bed-straw.  O.  w.  Ju.  4),  stem  diffuse,  very  branching, 
prickly  backwards  ;  leaves  in  fives  and  sixes,  lanceolate,  acuminate  ;  mar- 
gins and  nerves  prickly ;  pedicles  short.  18— -24  i,  & 


GAULTHERIA,  GOODYERA.  389 

10—1.    GAULTHERIA.    18.  51. 

procum'bens  (spicy  wintergreen.  O.  w.  J.  4.  or  '.O,  stem  procumbent ; 
branches  erect ;  leaves  obovate,  acute  at  the  base  ;  flowers  few,  nodding. 
Berries  red,  consisting  in  part  of  the  permanent  calyx  ;  a  little  mealy,  plea- 
sant tasted.  S. 

5—2.    GENTIANA.    47.  46. 

crini'ta  (fringed  gentian.  O.  b.  S.  4),  stem  terete;  branches  long,  1  flowered; 
leaves  lanceolate,  acute  ;  corolla  4  cleft ;  divisions  obovate,  gash  ciliate. 
18  i.  -S. 

sapona'ria  (O.  b.  Oct.  4),  leaves  ovate  ;  lanceolate,  acute,  3  nerved  ;  flowers 
whirl  capitate,  sessile  ;  corol  ventricose,  closed,  10  cleft ;  interior  segments 
unequally  3  cleft,  as  long  as  the  exterior  ones ;  segments  of  the  calyx  ovate, 
shorter  than  the  tube.  18  i.  /S. 

15—10.    GERANIUM .*    14.  73. 

macula'tum  (crow  foot  geranium.  O.  r.  &b.  J.  4),  erect ;  pubescence  reversed  ; 
stem  dichotomous  ;  leaves  opposite,  3  or  5  parted,  gashed  ;  upper  ones  ses- 
sile ;  peduncles  2  flowered  ;  petals  obovate.     1 — 2  f.  £. 
Exotic. 

sanguin"eum  (bloody  geranium.  4),  peduncle  1  flowered ;  leaves  5  parted,  3 
cleft,  orbicular ;  capsule  bristly  at  the  top. 

13—2.    GERARDIA.    40.  40. 

1.  Flowers  purple.        * 

tenuifo'lia  (O.  Au — Sept.  $),  very  branching  ;  leaves  linear,  acute,  scabrous  ; 
peduncles  axillary,  longer  than  the  flowers  ;  teeth  of  the  calyx  acute. 
6—10  i.  S. 

2.  Flowers  yellow. 

fla'va  (false  foxglove.  O.  y.  Ju.  4),  pubescent ;   stem  nearly  simple;  leaves 
sub-sessile,  lanceolate,  entire  or  toothed  ;  lower  ones  sub-pinnatifid,  gashed  ; 
flowered  axillary,  opposite,  sub-sessile.    2—3  f.  <S. 
11—13.    GEUM.    35.  92. 

riw'k  (purple  veins,  O.  p.  J.  4),  pubescent ;  stem  simple ;  radical  leaves 
interruptedly  pinnate  ;  canline  ones  3  cleft ;  flowers  nodding  ;  petals  as 
long  as  the  calyx  ;  awns  plumose,  nearly  naked  at  the  top,  minutely 
uncinate.  18  in. 

virginia'num,  (evens.  O.  w.  Ju.  4),  "pubescent ;  radicle  and  lower  cauline 
leaves  ternate,  upper  ones  lanceolate ;  stipules  ovate,  sub-entire ;  flowers 
erect ;  petals  shorter  than  the  calyx  ;  awns  hooked,  naked  ;  at  the  apex 
twisted,  hairy.  Var.  trilobum,  has  the  radical  leaves  3  lobed  or  ternate. 
2f.  -S. 

13—1.     GLECHOMA.    42.  39. 

hedera'cea  (ground  ivy,  gill-overground.  O.  b.  &  r.  M  4),  leaves  reniform  cre- 
nate  ;  stem  root  ing.  Var.  cordata,  leaves  cordate.  & 

17—2.    GNAPHALIUM.    49.  55. 

margarita'ceum  (large  flowered  life-everlasting.  O.  y.  &  w.  Ju.  4).  leaves 
linear  lanceolate,  gradually  narrowing,  acute  ;  stem  branching  above ;  co- 
rymb fastigiate  ;  flowers  pedicelled.  Flowers  with  white  pearly  rays  and 
yellow  disks.  1—2  f.  S. 

poly ceph" alum  (sweet  scented  life-everlasting.  O.  y-w.  Ju.  ©),  leaves  lance- 
linear,  acute,  glabrous  above,  downy  beneath  ;  stem  panicled,  downy ;  eo- 
rymbs  terminal.  1 — 2  f.  S. 

5—1.     GOMPHRENA.    54.  30. 

Exotic. 

globo'sa  (globe  amaranth,  bachelor's  button,  r.  Au.  ©),  stem  erect ;  leaves 
lance  ovate,  heads  solitary ;  peduncles  2  leaved. 

18—1.    GOODYERA.    7.  21. 

pubesf'cens  (rattle-snake  leaf,  scrophula-weed.  O.  y.  w.  Ju.  4),  leaves  radical, 
ovate,  petioled,  veins  coloured,  reticulate ;  scape  sheathed ;  scape  and  flow- 
er pubescent ;  lip  ovate  acuminate  ;  petals  ovate.  10—15  i.  S. 

*  See  Erodium  and  Pelargonium. 
33* 


390  GOSSYPIU3I,  HELIANTHUS, 

15—13.     GOSSYPIUM.    37.  74. 

Exotic. 

herba'ceum  (cotton.  Au.  f ),  leaves  5  lobed,  mncronate,  one  gland  beneath  ; 
stem  herbaceous,  smooth.  5  f. 

2—1.    GRATIOLA.    40.  40. 

virffin"ica  (creeping  hedge  hyssop.  O.  w.  &  y.  4),  sfm  pubescent,  assur- 
gent,  terete;  leaves  smooth,  lanceolate,  sparingly  dentate,  serrate,  altenuUt 
and  connate  at  the  base ;  loaves  of  the  cajyi  equal ;  sterile  filaments  nunc. 
6-8  in.  S. 

21—5.    GYROPHORA.    57.  2. 

pensiflvz'nica,  frond  tawny  olive  ;  under  side  rough  granulate  ;  receptacles 
marginated.  On  rocks  and  mountains. 

18—1.    HABENARIA.    7.  21. 

phyco'des  (O.  g-w.  Ju.  4),  lip  3  parted  ;  segments  finely  divided  ;  petals  ob- 
tuse ;  horn  filiform  clavate,  ascending,  longer  than  the  germ. 

viridojlo'rum  (g.  &  p.  Au.  4J,  stem  erect,  branched,  scabrous  ;  leaves  teruatc, 
ovate,  obtuse,  scabrous  above,  villous  and  very  soft  beneath  ;  paniele  termi- 
nal, very  long,  naked  ;  joints  of  the  lowest  triangular.  3  f.  •§. 

nitundifo'lium  (O.  p.  Au.  4 ,  stem  prostrate,  hairy  ;  leaves  ternate,  suborbicu- 
lar,  hairy ;  stipules  cordate,  reflexed  ;  racemes  axillary,  paniculate ;  joints  of 
the  loinent  sub-rhomboidal.  2 — 3  f.  S. 

acumina'tum  (O.  p.  Ju.  4),  erect,  simple,  pubescent ;   leaves  ternate,  ovat«-, 
conspicuously  acuminate,  a  little  hairy  ;   panicle  terminal,  on  a  very  long 
naked  peduncle  ;  joints  of  the  loment  roundish.    1 — 2  f.    IS. 
21—4.    HALUMENIA.    57.  2. 

palma'ta,  frond  flat,  sub-palmate  ;  divisions  oblong,  sub-simple  ;  colour  reddi.sh 
purple ;  substance  at  first  thin  atiJ  membranaceous,  at  length  passing  into  a 
soft  leathery  substance.  In  the  sea. 

4—2.     HAMAMELIS.    54.  78. 

M'/x'/V'ica  (witch  hazle.  O.  y.  Oc.  > ),  leaves,  obovate  acute,  toothed,  cordate, 
with  a  small  sinus.  Var.  parvifoHa,  leaves  oblong  ovate,  upper  part  undu- 
late coarse  crenatc,  pubescent  and  somewhat  hirsute  beneath  ;  division.-,  ol 
the  calyx  oblong  ;  flowers  in  the  fall,  and  perfects  the  fruit  the  next  summer. 

13—1.    HEDEOMA.    42.  39. 

pulegio'ides  (penny-royal.  O.  b.  J.  ©),  pubescent;  leaves  oblong,  serrate ;  pe- 
duncles axillary,  whorled.  6 — 8  i.  5. 

5—1.    HEDERA.    46.  58., 

he'lix  ^English  ivy  g.w.  S.  > ),  leaves  3  or  5  lobed  ;  floral  ones  ovate;  umbel 
erect. 

16—10.    HEDYSARUM.    32.  96. 

canaden"se  (bush  trefoil.  O.  r.  Ju.  4),  erect,  smoothish*,  leaves  ternate,  lance 
oblong  ;  stipules  filiform  ;  flowers  racemed  ;  bracts  lance  ovate,  acuminate, 
ciliate ;  joints  of  the  loment  obtusely  triangled,  hispid.  3  f.  <S. 

17—2.    HELENIUM.    49.  55. 

aulumna'le  (false  sunflower.  O  y.  Au.  4),  leaves  lanceolate,  serrate,  subdeour- 
rent ;  stem  corymbed  above  ;  disk  florets  5  cleft ;  rays  flat,  reflexed.  Var. 
pubescent,  leaves  pubescent.  3 — 5  f.  S. 

17—3.    HELIANTHUS.    49.  55. 

1.  Leaves  opjwite. 

tracheUfo'lius  (y.  Au.  4),  leaves  ovate  lanceolate,  acuminate,  serrate,  triply- 
n«rred,  very  scabrous  on  both  sides;  scales  of  the  calyx  lance  linear,  ciliate; 
outer  ones  longest.  3 — 4  f.  S. 

2.  Upper  leaves  alternate. 

Exotic. 

lubero'sus  (Jerusalem  artichoke,  y.  S.  4),  leaves  3  nerved,  scabrous  ;  lower 
ones  heart  ovate,  upper  ones  ovate  acuminate  ;  petioles  ciliate.  Root  tu- 
berous. Naturalized.  4—8  i. 

an"nuiis  (common  sunflower,  y.  &  w.  Ju.  4),  leaves  all  cordate,  3  nerved  ;  pe- 
duncles thickening  upwards  ;  flowers  nodding.  6—10  f. 


HELIOPSIS,  HOUSTONIA.  391 

17—2.    HELIOPSIS.    49.  55. 

l&'vis  (ox-eye.  O.  Ju.  4),  stem  glabrous  ;  leaves  opposite,  ovate,  serrate,  3 
nerved,  smooth.  3 — 5.  f.  S.' 

5—1.    HELIOTROPIUM.    41.  42. 

Southern. 

in''dicum  (turnsole.  E.  b.  Ju.  ©),  leaves  heart  ovate,  acute,  roughish ;  spikes 
solitary;  fruit  bifid.  8— 12  i. 

12—13.  HELLEBORUS.  26.  61. 

ft^tidus  (hellebore),  stem  many-flowered,  leafy ;  leaves  pedate,  remotely  ser- 
rate, coriaceous  ;  corolla  somewhat  converging. 

6—1.    HEMEROCALLIS.     10.  16. 

Exotic.  f 

Jla'va  (yellow  day-lily,  y.  Ju.  4),  leaves  broad-linear,  keeled ;  petals  flat,  acute ; 
nerves  of  the  petals  undivided. 

12—13.-  HEPATICA.    26.  61. 

acutiV'oba  (heart-liverleaf.  O.  w.  &  b.  Ap.  4),  leaves  cordate,  3  to  5  lobed  : 
lobes  entire,  acute  ;  leaves  of  the  calyx  acute.  Grows  in  woods,  preferring 
the  north  side  of  hills  and  mountains.  This  is  the  Var.  acuta  of  the  triloba, 
of  Wildenow.  5  i. 

america'na  (kidney-liverleaf.  O.  w.  &  b.  Ap.  4),  leaves  heart-reniform,  3'lobed ; 
lobes  entire,  round-obtuse  :  leaves  of  the  calyx  obtuse.  Grows  chiefly  in 
woods,  preferring  the  south  side  of  hills  and  mountains.  This  has  been 
mistaken  for  the  triloba  of  W.  5  i. 

16—13.    HIBISCUS.    37.  74. 

Exotic. 

phceni'cius  (phenicean  mallows,  r.  Ju.  4),  leaves  ovate,  acuminate,  serrate  and 
crenate,  lower  ones  3  cuspidate  :  peduncles  jointed  :  seeds  woolly.  6 — 8  f. 

st/r'iacus  (syrian  mallows,  w.  &p.  Au.  ^),  leaves  wedge-ovate,  3  lobed,  tooth- 
ed :  outer  calyx  about  8  leaved,  of  the  length  of  the  inner.  5 — 10  f. 

tsculen"tus  (okra.  y.  Ju.  @),  leaves  heart  5  lobed,  obtusish,  toothed :  petiole 
longer  than  the  flower  :  outer  calyx  about  5  leaved,  caducous,  bursting 
lengthwise.  3  f. 

17—1.    HIERACIUM.    49.  53. 

veno"swn  (vein-leaf  hiawkweed.  O.  y.  Ju.  4),  scape  naked,  corymb-panicled 
glabrous:  leaves  lance-obovate  with  thin  hairs  above  and  naked  beneath, 
margin  ciliate,  glandular- toothed,  veins  coloured  :  calyx  glabrous.  1 — 2 
f.  <S. 

auranti'acum  (orange  hawkweed.  y.  4),  scape  leafy,  hispid :  flowers  corymbed : 
peduncle's  glomerate :  leaves  oblong,  acutish,  pilose-hispid. 

kai"mii(O  y.  Au.  4),  stem  erect,  sub-villose  :  leaves  sessile,  lanceolate,  acu- 
minate, sharply  and  divaricately  toothed  :  panicle  sub-corymbose :  pedicels 
downy.  2  f. 

1—1.    HI?PURIS.    15.  88. 

•vulga'ris  (mares  tail.  y-g.  M.  4),  leaves  linear,  and  lance-linear,  verticillate.  S. 

3—2.     HORDEUM.    4.  10. 

juba'tum  (O.  J.  $},  lateral  florets  abortive,  neuter:  awns  of  the  calyx  and 
corolla  6  times  as  long  as  the  flowers.  2  f.  S. 

Exotic, 
vtdga're  (barley.  Ju.  ©),  florets  all  perfect,  awned,  in  two  erect  rows. 

10—3.    HORTENSIA.     13.  84. 

Exotic. 

specidsa  (changeable  hydrangea,  r.  &  w.  J.  ^),  leaves  broadly  ovate,  serrate, 
acuminate ;  flowers  corymbed.  From  the  East  Indies.  This  is  the  common 
flower  pot  shrub,  usually  called  hyderindia. 

4—1.    HOUSTONIA.    47.  57. 

cccru'lca  (venus'  pride,  forget-me-not.  O.  b.  &  w.  M.  4),  stem  erect,  setaceous, 
dichotomou.s  :  radical  leaves  spatulate  ;  cauline  ones  oblanceolate,  opposite  : 
peduncles  1  flowered,  elongated.  4 — 6  i.  5. 


392  HUMULUS,  IPOMEA. 

20—5.     HUMULUS.    53.  98. 

lu'pulus  (hop.  O.  g-y.  Au.  4),  stem  twining  with  the  sun  :  leaves  lobed.  One 
of  the  best  of  tonics. 

fr— 1.    HYACINTHUS.    10.  16. 

Exotic, 
orienta'lis  (garden  hyacinth,   r.  Ap.   4),  corolla  funnel- form,  half  6  cleft,  ven- 

tricose  at  the  base. 

mus"cari  (musk  hyacinth,  b.  Ap.  4),  corollas  ovate,  all  equal. 
botryafidmt  (grape  hyacinth,  b  Ap.  4),  corollas  globose,  unHbrm  :  leaves  cylin- 
dric,  channelled,  straight. 

10—2.    HYDRANGEA.     13.  84. 

wdga'ris  (hydrangea.  E.  w.  Au.   V),  leaves  oblong-ovate,  obtuse  at  the  base, 
acuminate,  glabrous  beneath  :  cymes  naked.    5  f.  S. 
Hydrangea.    See  HORTENSIA. 
12—13.   HYDRASTIS.    26.  61. 

canaAen"sis  (orange  root.  O.  w-r.  Ap.  4),  stem  with  two  opposite  leaves  above 
leaves  petioled,  emarginate  at  the  base,  palmate,  serrate,  gashed  :  peduncle 
terminal,  solitary,  1  flowered.  Roots  yellow.  S. 

12—5.    HYPERICUM.    20.  68. 

perfora'tum  (O.  y.  J.  4),  erect,  branching  ;  stem  2  edged ;  leaves  oblong,  ob- 
tuse, transparently  punctate  ;  panicle  terminal,  brachiate,  leafy  :  petals  twice 
as  long  as  the  acute,  lanceolate  calyx.  This  is  the  common  St.  John's  wort, 
so  troublesome  to  farmers.  1 — 3  f.  N. 

virpin"icum  (O.  p.  Au.  4),  flowers  with  9  or  12  stamens,  distinctly  arranged 
in  three  parcels,  and  separated  by  nectaries  :  leaves  oval,  obtuse,  clasping  : 
stem  compressed.  1 — 2  £  S. 

6—1.    HYPOXIS.    10.  17. 

erec"ta  (star-grass.  O.  y .  Ju.  4),  pilose :  scape  2  or  3  flowered  :  leaves  lance- 
linear  :  divisions  of  the  corolla  lance-oblong.  Var.graminea,  has  longer  and 
narrower  loaves  ;  more  flowers,  longer  lance-linear  divisions  to  the  corolla — 
and  altogether  a  more  grassy  appearance. 

4—1.    ICTODES.    2.  7. 

fotftida  (skunk  cabbage,  fetid  hellebore.  O.  p.  Ap.  4),  stemless  leaves  radical, 
heart-ovate,  very  large  spadix  supporting  the  flowers  in  a  sub-globose  head 
Odour  resembles  that  of  the  skunk.  S. 

4—4.    ILEX.    43.  95. 

opa'ca  (evergreen  holly.  E.  g-w.  M.  > ),  leaves  evergreen,  ovate,  acute,  spinose 
glabrous,  flat :  flowers  scattered  at  the  base  of  the  shoots  of  the  preceding 
year.  A  middle  sized  tree.  S. 

5—1.    IMPATIENS.    24.  73. 

pal"lida  (jewel- weed,  touch-me-not.  O.  y.  Ju.  ©),  peduncles  solitary,  2  &  4 
flowered :  nectary  obtusely  conic,  dilated,  shorter  than  the  petals  :  spur  re- 
curved, very  short  ;  flowers  sparingly  punctate  ;  leaves  rhombovate,  mu- 
cronate-toothed.  2 — 4  f.  5. 

16—10.    INDIGOFERA.    32.   93. 

Exotic. 

tincto'ria  (indigo.  > ),  leaves  pinnate,  oblong,  glabrous,  in  four  pairs  ;  racemes 
shorter  than  the  leaves  ;  legume  terete,  somewhat  arched.  From  the  East 
Indies. 

17—2.    INULA.    49.  55. 

Exotic.    - 

hdefnium  (elecampane,  y.  Au.  4),  leaves  clasping,  ovate,  rugose,  tomentose  be- 
neath :  scales  of  the  calyx  ovate.  Naturalized.  3—5  f. 

5—1.    IPOMEA.    29.  43. 
nil  (morning  glory.  E.  b  Ju.   ©),  hirsute  :  leaves  cordate,  3  lobed :  peduncles 

short,  1—3  flowered :  calyx  very  villose,  long  acuminate.  S. 
bananox  (E.   w.  Ju  ©),  very  glabrous  :  leaves  cordate,  entire  or  angled  :  pe- 
duncle 1  to  3  flowered :  calyx  avvned  :  corolla  undivided,  tube  long. 


IRIS,  LATHYRUS.  393 

3—1.    IRIS.    6.  18. 

versic"olor  (O.  b.  J.  4),  leaves  ensiform  :  stem  acute  on  one  side  :  capsules  ob- 
long, 3  sided  with  obtuse  angles.  2 — 3f.  <S. 

prismaf'ica  (boston  iris.  E.  b.  y.  J.  4),  flowers  beardless  :  leaves  linear  :  stem 
round,  many-flowered  ;  germs  triangular,  twice  grooved  on  the  sides.  1 — 2  f. 

Exotic, 
plica'ta  (garden  iris.  p.  w.  M.  4),  bearded ;  stem  many  flowered,  higher  than 

the  leaves  ;  petals  undulate-plicate,  erect  ones  broadest.    18 — 24  i. 
pu'mUa  (dwarf-flower-de-luce,  b.  M.   4),  bearded  ;  scape  1  flowered  :  leaves 
ensiform,  glabrous  ;   tube  of  the  corolla    exsert ;   petals  oblong,  obtuse. 
6— 10  i. 

ochrole'uca  (yellow  iris.  y.  M  )  beardless  ;  leaves  ensiform,  depressed,  striate  ; 
scape  sub-terete  ;  germ  6  cornered. 

13—1.    ISANTHUS.    42.  39. 

cceru'leus  (blue  gentian,  false  pennyroyal  O.  b.  Ju.  ©),  viscid-hairy  ;  leaves, 
lance-oval,  acute  at  both  ends,  3  nerved  ;  peduncles  1  or  2  flowered. 

3—1.    IXIA.    6.   18. 

chinen"sis  (blackberry  lily.  y.  r.  J.  4),  corolla  about  6  petalled  ;  stem  flexuoae  ; 
leaves  ensiform. 

2—1.    JASMINUM.    44.  37. 

fruV'icans  (jasmine,  y.  ^ ),  leaves  alternate,  ternate,  simple ;  leafets  obovate, 
wedge-form,  obtuse  ;  branches  angled. 
officwa'le  (jasmine  w.  ** ),  leaves  pinnate,  opposite ;  leafets  acuminate. 

19—12.    JUGLANS.    50.  94. 

cine'rea  (butternut.  O.  M.  >),  leafets  numerous,  lanceolate,  serrate,  rounded  at 
the  base,  soft-pubescent  beneath  ;  petioles  villose  ;  fruit  oblong-ovate,  viscid, 
long-peduncled  ;  not  roughly  sculptured. 

6—1.    JUNCUS.    5.  13. 

efu'sus  (E.  4),  scape  minutely  striate  (soft) ;  panicle  loose,  very  branching ; 
spreading ;  leafets  of  the  calyx  lanceolate,  acuminate,  rather  longer  than  the 
obovate,  obtuse  capsule.  2 — 3  f. 

21—3.    JUNGERMANNIA.    57.  3. 

complana'ta,  stem  branched,  creeping ;  leaves  roundish,  very  entire  ;  ears  sub- 
ovate,  flattish.  On  smooth  bark  ;  very  rarely  on  rocks. 

palma'ta,  frond  short,  somewhat  ascending,  digitate-palmate,  nerveless.  Dark 
green.  Rotten  wood,  in  wet  places.  Remark.  Most  of  the  Junger-mannias 
are  in  fruit  late  in  the  spring ;  some,  however,  in  the  winter. 

10—1.     KALMIA.     18.  50. 
latifo'lia  (laurel.  E.  w.  &  r.  Ju.  > ),  leaves  long-petioled,  scattered,  and  in  threes, 

oval,  smooth  both  sides  ;  corymbs  terminal,  with  viscid  hairs.    3 — 20  £ 
angustifo'lia  (sheep  laurel.  O.  J.  ^),  leaves  in  threes,  petioled,  oblong,  obtuse, 
sometimes  rusty  beneath  ;  corymbs  lateral ;  bracts  linear  ;  peduncles  and 
calyx  with  glandular  hairs.     Var.  ovata,  taller  ;  leaves  broader,  sub-ovate. 
2— 3f. 

17—1.    LACTUCA.    49.  53. 

elonga'ta  (wild  lettuce.  O.  y.  Ju.  $  or  4),  leaves  smooth ;  lower  ones  runci- 
nate,  amplexicaul ;  upper  ones  lanceolate,  sessile ;  flowers  panicled . 
4—6  f.  S. 

Exotic. 

sati'va  (lettuce,  y.  Ju.  ©),  leaves  roundish  ;  cauline  ones  cordate  ;  stem  co- 
rymbed.  Var.  romana,  has  oblong,  straight  leaves,  narrowed  at  the  base. 
Var.  crisp/,  has  sinuate-crenate  leaves,  toothed,  undulated,  crispid  ;  radical 
ones  hairy  on  the  keel.  Var.  laciniata,  has  the  lower  leaves  pinnatifid,  and 
the  upper  ones  runcinate. 

13—1.    LAMIUM.    42.  39. 

umplexicaule  (dead-nettle.  O.  r.  Nov.  ©),  floral  leaves  broadly  cordate,  sessile, 
amplexicaul,  crenate ;  radical  leaves  petioled.     6 — 10  in.  S. 
16—10.     LATHYRUS.     32.  93. 

Exotic. 

odora'tus  (sweet  pea.  J.  ©),  peduncles  2  flowered  ;  tendril  with  2  ovate  ob- 
long leafets  ;  legumes  hirsute. 


394  LAURUS,  LINN.EA. 

latifo'lius  (everlasting  pea.  Au.  4),  peduncles  many  flowered  ;  tendril  with  2 
lance-ovate  leaves  ;  membranaceous  between  joints. 
9—1.    LAURUS.     12.  27. 

ben"zain  (spice  bush,  fever  bush.  O.  g.  y.  Ap.  >),  leaves  wedge-obovate,  whi- 
tish sub-pubescent  beneath  ;  flowers  in  clustered  umbels ;  buds  and  pedicels 
glabrous.  4—10  f 

sas"safras  (sassafras  tree.  O.  y.  M.  * ),  leaves  entire  and  lobed  on  the  same 
plant ;  flowers  mostly  dioecious.  10 — 25  f. 

Exotic. 

campkora'tus  (camphor  tree.  > ),  leaves  about  3  nerved,  lance-ovate ;  panicle 
spreading.  From  Japan. 

13—1.    LAVANDULA.    42.  39. 

Exotic. 

spi'ca  (lavender.  Au.  4),  leaves  sessile,  lance-linear,  with  rcvolute  margins  ; 
spike  interruptedly  naked. 

3—2.    LEERSIA.    4.  10. 

virgin"ica  (white-grass.  Ju.  y.  4),  panicle  simple ;  the  lower  branches  diffuse  ; 
flowers  oppressed,  monandrous,  sparingly  ciliate  on  the  keel.  2 — 4  ft.  <S. 

10—1.    LEIOPHYLLUM.     18  50. 

buxifo'lium  (sand  myrtle.  E.  w.  > ),  leaves  small,  lance-oval,  entire,  glabrous, 
lucid,  re volute  at  the  margin  ;  corymbs  terminal  6—18  i. 

17—1.     LEONTODON.    49.  53. 

tarax'acum  (dandelion.  O.  y.  Ap.  4),  outer  calyx  reflexed  ;  acape  1  flowered, 
leaves  runcinate,  with  toothed  divisions.    Introduced. 
13—1.    LEONURUS.    42.39. 

Exotic. 

cardi'aca  (raotherwort.  w-r.  Ju.  4),  leaves  3  lobed,  toothed,  bases  wedge  form ; 
calyx  prickly,  less  than  the  corolla.    Naturalized.    2—4  f. 
14—1.    LEPIDIUM.    39.63. 

Exotic, 
suli'vum  (peppergraas.  w.  Ju.  ©),  leaves  oblong,  many  cleft. 

2—1.    LEPTANDRA.    40.40. 

virgin"ica  (O.  w.  Ju.— -Aug.  4),  leaves*  verticillate,  in  fours  or  fives,  lanceo- 
late, serrate,  petioled.  3— 4  f.  S. 

2—1.    LIGUSTRUM.    44.  37. 

vvlea're  (prim.  E.  w.  J.  * ),  leaves  lanceolate,  acutish ;  panicle  compact 
Perhaps  introduced. 

6—1.    LILIUM.    10.  14. 
philadd"phicum  (red  lily.  O.  r.  y.  J.  4),  leaves  whorled,  lance  linear ;  corolla 

erect,  bell  form,  spreading ;  petals  lanceolate,  having  claws.     1 — 3  f. 
cahaden"se  (nodding  lily.  O.  y.  r.  Ju.  4),  leaves  remotely  whorled,  lanceolate  ; 
peduncles  terminal,  elongated,  mostly  in  threes ;  corolla  nodding ;  petals 
spreading.    2—3  f. 

supfr"bum  (superb  lily.  E.  y.  p.  Ju.  4),  leaves  lance  linear,  3  nerved,  glabrous  ; 
lower  ones  whorled ;  upper  ones  scattered  ;  flowers  in  a  pyramid-raceme',  re- 
curved ;  petals  revolute.  3 — 6  f. 

Exotic. 
can"didum  (white  lily.  w.  J.  4),  leaves  lanceolate,  scattered,  tapering  to  the 

base  ;  corolla  bell  form,  glabrous  within. 

bulb"iferum  (orange  lily.  y.  J.  4),  leaves  scattered,  3  nerved  ;  corolla  campanu- 
late,  erect,  scabrous  within. 

2—1.    LINDERNIA.    40.  40. 

attenua'ta  (false  hedge  hyssop,  w-p.  Ju.  ©), ,  leaves  lanceolate  and  obovate,  nar- 
rowed at  the  base ;  peduncle  shorter  than  the  leaves,  erect.  S. 

4—1.    LINN^EA.    48.  58. 

borea'lis  (twin-flower.  O.  w.r.  J.  4),  stem  prostrate  ;  branches  erect,  each  bear- 
ing 2  flowers ;  leaves  roundish,  crenate.  Woods. 


LINUM,  LYCOPODIUM.  395 

5—5.    LINUM.    14.  82. 

Exotic. 

Hsitatis"simum  (flax,  b  Ju.  ©),  leafets  of  the  calyx  ovate,  acute,  3  nerved  ;  pe- 
tals crenate  ;  leaves  lanceolate,  alternate  ;  stem  sub-solitary. 

12—13.    LIRIODENDRON.    52.  75, 

tuLipif'era  (white  wood,  tulip  tree.  O.  y.  r.  J.  > ),  leaves  truncate  at  the  end, 
with  2  side  lobes.  A  beautiful  flowering  tree.  90-150  f.  S. 

5—1.    LOBELIA.    29.  52. 

cardina'Us  (cardinal  flower.  O.  r.  Ju.  4),  erect,  simple,  pubescent ;  leaves  lance 
ovate,  acuminate,  denticulate  ;  racemes  somewhat  one  sided,  many  flowered  ; 
stamens  longer  than  corollas.    Damp.  1—2  f. 
injla'ta  (wild  tobacco.   O.  b.  Ju.  ©),  erect,  branching,  very  hirsute ;  leaves 

ovate,  serrate ;  racemes  leafy  ;  capsules  inflated.     12 — 18  i. 
kal"mii  (O.  b.  Ju.  ©),  slender,  erect,  sub-simple ;  radical  leaves  spatulate ;  cau- 
line  ones  linear,  delicately  toothed ;  flowers  racemed,  alternate,  remote,  pe- 
dicelled.    6—24  i.  S. 

3—2.    LOLIUM.    4.  10. 

peren"ne  (E.M.  4),  florets  much  longer  than  the  calyx,  unarmed,  linear  oblong, 
compressed.  Introduced.  18  i. 

5—1.    LONICERA.    48.  58. 

xemper"virens  (E.  r.  y.  M.  > ),  spikes  with  distant,  nakedish  whorls  ;  corollas 
sub-equal ;  tube  ventricose  above ;  leaves  ovate  and  obovate,  glaucous  be- 
neath ;  upper  ones  connate  perfoliate.  Leaves  perennial.  S. 

Exotic, 
caprifo'lium  (honeysuckle.  ^),  corollas  ringent  like,  terminal ;  sessile  leaves 

connate  perfoliate  at  the  top- 

periclym"enum  (woodbine.  J.  > ),  flowers  in  ovate,  imbricate,  terminal  heads ; 
leaves  all  distinct.  Var.  quercifolia,  leaves  sinuate. 

4—1.    LUDWIGIA.     17.  88. 

pilo'sa  (O.  y.  Ju.  4),  stem  erect,  branched,  hairy  ;  leaves  alternate,  oblong,  ses- 
sile ;  peduncles  1  flowered,  axillary ;  capsule  globose,  quadrangular. 
Swamps.  S. 

14—1.    LUNARIA.    39.  63. 

Exotic. 
an"nua  (honesty,  p.  2 ),  leaves  obtusely  toothed ;  silicles  oval,  obtuse  at  both 

ends.    Naturalized. 

redivi'va  (satin  flower,  b-p.  4),  leaves  with  mucronate  teeth;  silicles  tapering 
to  both  ends.  Flowers  odorous. 

17—10.    LUPINUS.     32.    93. 

peren"nis  (wild  lupine.  O.  b.  M.  4),  stem  and  leaves  smoothish ;  leaves  digi- 
tate, with  about  8  to  10  leafets,  which  are  oblanceolate,  obtusish ;  calyxes 
alternate,  not  appendaged ;  banner  emarginate,  keel  entire.  12 — 18  i.  -S. 

Exotic. 

hirsu'tus  (garden  lupine,  b.  ©),  calyxes  appendaged,  alternate;  banner  2  parted ; 
keel  3  toothed. 

10—5.    LYCHNIS.    22.  82. 

Exotic. 

chalcedon"ica  (scarlet  lichnis.  r.  J.  4),  flowers  fascicled,  level  top,  or  convex. 
floscuc"uli (ragged  robin.  4),  petals  torn;  capsule  1  celled,  roundish. 
4—1.    LYCIUM.    28.  41. 

Exotic. 

f>arba"rum  (matrimony  vine.  J.  r.  y.  ^  ),  stem  angled ;  branches  erect;  leaves 
lanceolate,  tapering  to  both  ends ;  calyx  mostly  3  cleft. 

21—6.  LYCOPERDON.  58.  i. 

bovis"ta  (common  puff  ball.  O.),  at  first  white  and  obconic,  becoming  black  and 
spherical ;  outer  coat  downy,  which,  pealing  off,  leaves  the  leathery  inner 
coat ;  seeds  black,  lighter  than  air,  and  appearing  like  smoke.  In  meadows. 

21—1.     LYCOPODIUM.     55.  5. 

complana'tum  (ground  pine.  E.  g-y.  Ju.  4),  creeping,  erectish  ;  branches  alter- 
nate, dichotomous ;  leaves  bifareous,  connate,  spreading  at  the  tips  ;  spikes 
in  pairs,  peduncled.  Woods.  S. 


396  LYCOPUS,  MENISPERMl  M. 

2—1.    LYCOPUS.    42.  39. 

europe'us  (water  horehound.  w.  Au.  ©),  smooth  ;  stem  acutely  4  cornered  ; 
leaves  narrow  lanceolate,  with  large  acute  teeth  ;  lower  ones  somewhat 
pinnatifid  ;  segments  of  the  calyx  acuminate,  terminating  in  short  spines. 
1—  2f.  S. 

5—1.    LYSIMACHIA.    20.  34. 

stric"ta  (loose  strife.  O.  y.  Ju.  4),  raceme  terminal,  very  long,  lax  ;  leaves  op- 
posite, lanceolate,  sessile  ;  petals  lanceolate,  spreading.     1 — 2  f.     S. 
cilta'ta  (O.  y.  J.   4),  sub-pubescent  ;    leaves  opposite,  long  petioled,  sub- 
cordate  oval  ;   petioles  cUiate  ;  pedicels  somewhat  in  pairs  ;   flowers  nod- 
ding.   2 — 1  f.    S. 

quadrifo'lia  ^4),  branching;  stem  smooth  ;  leaves  sessile,  opposite,  very  long 
linear ;  peduncles  in  fours,  sub-terminal,  1  flowered.  2—  3r.  S. 

13—1.    MACROTYS.    26.  61. 

racemo'sa  (bug-bane,  black  snake-root,  cohosh.  O.  w.  Ju.  4),  leaves  decom- 
pound ;  leafets  oblong  ovate,  gash  toothed  ;  racemes  in  wand  like  spikes  ; 
capsules  ovate.  Wooda.  3—9  f.  S. 

12—13.     MAGNOLIA.    52.   75. 

Southern. 

graTidiJlo'ra  (big  laurel,  magnolia.  O.  w.  M.  >),  leaves  evergreen,  oval, 
thick,  leathery  ;  petals  broad  obovate,  abruptly  narrowed  into  a  claw. 
60— 80  f. 

15-M3.    MALVA.    37.  74. 

rotundifo'lia  (low  mallows.  O.  r.  w.  J.  4),  leaves  heart  obicular,  obsoletely  5 
lobed  ;  peduncles  bearing  the  fruit  [declined  ;  stem  prostrate.  Probably 
introduced. 

Exotic. 
sylves"tn»  (mallows,  r-b.  J.  <*.  and  4),  stem  erect ;  leaves  about?  lobed,  acu- 

tish  ;  peduncles  and  petioles  hairy. 

criaf'pa  (curled  mallows.  Au.  ©),  stem  erect ;  leaves  angular,  crisped  ;  flowers 
axillary,  glomerate. 

21—3.    MARCHANTIA.    57.  3. 

polymor'pha  (brook  liverwort.  O.  g-y.  Ju.  4),  pistillate  receptacles  radiated ; 
titaminate  ones  peduncled,  peltate  ;  fronds  crowded  together,  lobed,  nerved, 
and  covered  with  small  decussate  veins.  Pistillate  peduncles  very  long  . 
nerves  of  the  frond  generally  brown.  On  earth  and  stones  in  wet  or  damp 
places. 

13—1.    MARRUBIUM.    42.  39. 

vtdgn're  (horehound.  O.  w.  Ju.  4),  leaves  round  ovate,  toothed,  rugose 
veined  ;  calyx  toothed,  setaceous,  uncinate.  Introduced.  .V 

14—2.    MELAMPYRUM.    40.  35. 

eanerica'num  (cow-wheat  O.  y.  Ju.  ®),  slender  ;  lower  leaves  linear,  entire ; 
floral  ones  lanceolate,  toothed  behind  ;  flowers  axillary,  distinct.  Var.  lati- 
fdlium,  has  very  broad  leaves.  Woods.  S. 

16—10.     MELILOTUS.    32.  93. 

al"ba  (white  melilot  clover,  w.  J.  ©),  stem  erect;  leafets  variable  (oval,  ovate, 
obovate,  and  oblanceolate)  -mucronately  serrulate  :  banner  longer*  than  the 
wings ;  racemes  axillary,  panicled  ;  the  longest  raceme  6  to  10  times  as  long 
as  the  longest  leafet  at  its  base  ;  legumes  oval.  3  to  6  f.  Probably  intro- 
duced ;  but  now  very  common  and  growing  wild.  <S. 
13—1.  MELISSA.  42.  39. 

Exotic. 

ojficma'lis  (balm.  w.  b.  Ju.  4),  flowers  w  horled  half  way  round,  sub-sessile  ; 
bracts  oblong,  pedicelled  ;  leaves  ovate,  acute,  serrate.  Naturalized. 

20—13.    MENISPERMUM.    11.  77. 

canaden"se  (moonseed.  O.  y.  Ju.  4),  leaves  peltate,  cordate,  round  angular ; 
racemes  compound  ;  petals  8.  S. 

* 'Suggested  by  H.  H.  E. 


MENTHA,  MYOSOTIS.  397 

13-1.    MENTHA.    42.  39. 

Exotic. 

mperi'ta  (peppermint,  p.  Au.  4),  spikes  obtuse,  interrupted  below ;  leaves  sub- 
ovate,  somewhat  glabrous,  petioled  ;  stem  glabrous  at  the  base.  Naturali- 

wr"ictis  (spear  mint.  p.  Au.),  leaves  lanceolate,  sessile ;  spikes  elongated,  inter- 
rupted ;  stamens  long.  1—2  f. 

11—5.    MESEMBRYANTHEMUM.    13.  87. 

Exotic. 

crystalli"num  (ice  plant,  w.  Au.  ©),  branching ;  leaves  alternate,  ovate,  papil- 
lose ;  flowers  sessile  ;  calyx  broad  ovate,  acute,  retuse. 

17—1.    MIKANIA.    49.  55. 

pubes"cens  (w-p.  S.  4),  stem  climbing,  pubescent ;  leaves  cordate,  acuminate, 
angularly  dentate,  pubescent  on  both  sides  ;  divaricate,  equal.  5. 

13—2.    MIMULUS.    40.  40. 

rin"gens  (monkey-flower.  O.  b,  Ju.  4),  erect,  glabrous ;  leaves  sessile,  lanceo- 
late, acuminate,  serrate ;  peduncles  axillary,  opposite,  longer  than  the  flower  ; 
teeth  of  the  calyx  acuminate.  1 — 2  f.  S. 

5—1.    MIRABILIS.    54.  32. 

Exotic. 
jal"apa  (four  o'clock,  r.  y.  Ju.  4),  flowers  heaped,  peduncled ;  leaves  glabrous. 

4—1.     MITCHELLA.    48.  57. 

re'pens  (O.  w.  Ju.  4),  stem  creeping,  branched ;  leaves  smooth,  roundish,  oppo- 
site. Woods.  S. 

10—2.  MITELLA.     13.  84. 

diphyl"la  (O.  w.  M.  4),  leaves  somewhat  lobed  ;  lobes  acute,  dentate ;    stem 
erect,  with  2  opposite  leaves  above  the  middle.     12 — 18  i. 
13—1.    MOLLUCCELLA.    42.  39. 

Exotic. 

Ice'vis  (molucca  balm,  shell  flower,  w-g.  Ju.  ©),  calyx  campanulate,  5  toothed ; 
teeth  equal,  awnless  ;  leaves  petioled,  round  ovate,  toothed. 

3—3.    MOLLUGO.    22.  82. 

verticilla'ta  (carpet  weed.  O.  w.  Ju.  ©),  leaves  verticillate,  wedge  form,  acute  ; 
stem  branched,  depressed ;  peduncles  1  flowered.  -S. 

19—15.    MOMORDICA.    34.  97. 

echina'ta  (O.  w.  Au.  ©),  pomaceous ;  berry  4  seeded,  roundish,  setose  echinate ; 
leaves  cordate,  5  lobe  angled,  acuminate,  entire.  Calyx  6  cleft ;  corolla  6 
parted. 

2—1.    MONARDA.    42—39. 

did"yme  (mountain  mint.  O.  r.  J.  4),  leaves  ovate,  acuminate,  sub-cordate, 
somewhat  hairy ;  flowers  in  simple  or  proliferous  heads  ;  outer  bracts  large, 
coloured,  lanceolate.  Var.  angustifolia,  leaves  lance  ovate,  acuminate,  pu- 
bescent ;  stem  pubescent.  18 — 24  i.  S. 

10—1.    MONOTROPA.     18.  51. 

uniflo'ra  (bird's  nest,  Indian  pipe.  O.  w.  J.  4),  stem  1  flowered  ;  flower  nod- 
ding at  first,  at  length  erect ;  scales  of  the  stem  approximate.  Whole  plant 
ivory  white  at  first.  4 — 8  i. 

19—4.    MORUS.    53.  98. 

Exotic. 

al"ba  (white  mulberry.  M.  >  (,  leaves  heart  form,  with  oblique  bases,  ovate  or 
lobed,  unequally  serrate,  smoothish.  From  China  and  Persia.  Naturalized. 
15-20  f. 

21—6.    MUCOR.    58.  1. 

aspergil"lus  (mould),  stipe  filiform,  dichotomous  ;  little  heads  terminal,  sub- 
conjugate,  oblong  when  mature.  On  putrid  fungi  in  autumn. 

5—1.    MYOSOTIS.    41.  42. 

(forget-me-not.  E.  w-b.  J.  ©),  seeds  smooth  ;  calyx  leaves  oval,  acu- 
minate, very  hirsute,  longer  than  the  tube  of  the  corolla;  stem  very  branch- 
ing ;  racemes  conjugate ;  leaves  lance  oblong,  hirsute.    4—8  i.    S. 
34 


398  MYRTUS,  ORCHIS. 

Southern. 

na'na  (b.  &  y  4),  leaves  oblong,  villose  ;  racemes  few  flowered  ;  seeds 
smoothish ;  marginate  serrulate. 

11—1.    MYRTUS.    19.  39. 

Exotic. 

commu'nis  (myrtle,  w.  Ju.  > ),  flowers  solitary  ;  involucrum  2  leaved  ;  leaves 
ovate. 

6—1.    NARCISSUS.    9.  17. 

Exotic. 
pseudo4narci8"sus  (daffodil.  M.  4),  spatha  1  flowered ;  nectary  bell  form,  erect, 

crisped,  equalling  the  ovate  petals. 

tazef'ta  (polyanthos.  M.  4),  spatha  many  flowered ;  nectary  bell  form,  plicate, 

truncate,  thrice  as  short  as  the  petals ;  petals  alternately  broader ;  leaves  flat. 

jonquil"la  (jonquil.  M.  4),  spatha  many  flowered  ;  nectary  bell  form,  short ; 

leaves  subulate. 

poeficus  (poets'  narcissus.  4),  spatha  1  flowered  ;  nectary  wheel  form,  very 
short,  s carious  (red),  crcnulate ;  leaves  inflexed  at  the  margin. 

19—1.    NEOTTIA.    7.  21. 

tor"tilis  (summer  ladies'-tresses.  O.  w.  Ju.  4),  radical  leaves  linear ;  scape 
sheathed  ;  flowers  spirally  secund ;  lip  somewhat  3  lobed ;  middle  lobe  lar- 
ger, crenulate.  12  i.  «S.  Var.  gracilis,  radical  leaves  ovate,  caducous, 
membranaceous. 

13— i.    NEPETA.    42.  39. 

cata'ria  (cat  mint,  catnep.  O.  b-w.  4),  hoary  pubescent ;  flowers  in  whorled 
•pikes  ;  leaves  petioled,  cordate,  tooth  serrate. 

5—1.    NICOTIAN  A.    28— 41. 

Exotic. 

taba'cum  (Virginian  tobacco,  w-r.  Ju.  ©),  leaves  lance  ovate,  sessile,  decurrent ; 
flowers  acute.  Naturalized. 

21—4.    NOSTOC.    57.  2. 


conimu'ne,  on  the  earth ;  frond  plated  lootd,  ventricose,  gelatinous.  On  the 
earth  after  a  storm,  an  inch  or  two  in  extent,  olive  green. 

12—1.    NUPHAR.     13.  62. 

kalmia'na  (O.  Ju.  4),  leaves  cordate,  lobes  near  each  other ;  calyx  5  leaved  ; 
stigma  gashed,  with  8  to  12  radiated  lines. — Flowers  small.  Water. 

12—1.    NYMPILEA.    '13.  62. 

odora'ta  (pond  lily.  O.  w.  Ju.  4),  leaves  round  cordate,  entire,  sub-emarginate ; 
lobes  spreading  asunder,  acuminate,  obtuse  ;  petals  equalling  the  4  leaved 
calyx.  S. 

13—2.    OBOLARIA.    40.  35. 

mrein"ica  (penny-wort.  E.  r.  Ap.  4),  stem  simple ;   leaves  oblong,  truncate, 
fleshy,  purple  beneath  ;  flowers  axillary,  solitary,  sessile.    3 — 4  i.    S. 
8—1.    (ENOTHERA.     17.    88. 

Cap/rules  elongated,  sessile. 

bien"nis  (scabish,  tree-primrose.  O.  y.  J.    £ ),  stem  villose,  scabrous  ;   leaves 
|    lance  ovate,  flat,  toothed ;  flowers  sub-spiked,  sessile  ;  stamens  shorter  than 

the  corolla.    3— 5.  f. 

parv'iflo'ra  (E.  y.  Ju.  £),  stem  smooth,  sub-villose ;  leaves  lance  ovate,  flat; 
stamens  longer  than  the  corolla. 

21—1.    ONOCLEA.    55.  5. 

sensib"ilis  (sensitive  fern.  O.  J.  ^i),  barren  frond  pinnate ;  fertile  one  doubly 
pinnate ;  stem  glabrous.  The  leafets  slowly  approach  each  other,  on  squeez- 
ing the  stem  in  the  hand.  /S. 

18—1.    ORCHIS.    7.  21. 

Roots  ovalt  or  palmate. 

specta'bilis  (O.  r.  M.  4),  lip  obovate,  undivided,  crenate,  retuse ;  petals  straight ; 
lateral  ones  longest ;  spur  clavate,  shorter  than  the  germ  ;  bracts  longer  than 
the  flowers  ;  stem  leafless.  3 — G  i.  <S. 


ORIGANUM,  PASTINACA.  399 

13—1.    ORIGANUM.    42—39. 

vtdga're  (wild  marjoram.  O.  r.  Ju.  4),  spikes  round  panicled,  heaped  ;  bracts 
ovate,  longer  than  the  calyx.  1 — 2  f.  S. 

Exotic. 

majora'na  (sweet  marjoram.  > ),  spikes  roundish,  ternate,  compact,  peduncled  ; 
leaves  petioled,  oval,  obtuse,  smoothish.  6 — 12  i. 

6—1.    ORNITHOGALUM.     10.  16. 

umbella'tum  (star  of  Bethlehem.  M.  4),  flowers  corymbed,  peduncles  longer 
than  the  bracts  ;  filaments  subulate.  Naturalized.  6 — 8  i. 

13—2.    OROBANCHE.    40.  35. 

uniflo'ra  (cancer-root.  O.  b-w.  M.  4),  stem  very  short :  peduncles  2,  elongated, 
scape-form,  1  flowered,  naked  :  scales  smooth,  concave  :  lobes  of  the  corolla 
oblong-oval,  with  a  pubescent,  coloured  margin.  4 — 6  i.  5. 

6—2.    ORYZA.    4.  10. 
mti'va  (rice.  ©),  culm  jointed  :  leaves  clasping  :  panicle  terminal. 

21—1.     OSMUNDA.     55.  5. 

cinnamo'mea  (flowering  fern.  O.  y.  J.  4),  barren  frond  doubly  pinnatifid  ;  seg- 
ments oval,  entire  :  fertile  fronds  with  opposite  racemes,  woolly.  3 — 6  f.  <S. 

10—5.    OXALIS.     14.  73. 

acetosel"la  (wood-sorrel.  O.  w.  r.  M.  4),  stemless  :  scape  1  flowered,  longer 
than  the  leaves  :  leaves  ternate,  broad  obcordate,  with  rounded  lobes  :  styles 
as  long  as  the  inner  stamens  :  root  dentate. 

8—1.    OXYCOCCUS.     18.  51. 

macrocar"pus  (cranberry.  O.  r.  J.  >),  creeping:  stem  ascending;  leaves  ob- 
long, flattish,  obtuse,  becoming  white  beneath  ;  pedicels  elongated  ;  divis- 
ions of  the  corolla  lance-linear.  Wet. 

12—3.    P^ONIA.    36.61. 

officina'lis  (peony,  r.  J.  4),  leaves  decompound  ;  leafets  lobed,  lobes  broad- 
lanceolate  ;  capsules  downy. 

5—2.     PANAX.    46.  59. 

quinquefo'lia  (ginseng.  O.  w.  M.  4),  root  fusiform  ;  leaves  ternate,  quinate  ; 
leafets  oval,  acuminate,  petioled  serrate.  Larger  than  the  last.  1 — 2  f.  S. 

3—2.    PANICUM.    4.  10. 

crus-gal"li  (barn  grass.  O.  Au.  ©),  racemes  alternate  and  in  pairs,  compound 
rachis  5  angled ;  glumes  terminating  in  hispid  bristles  ;  sheath  glabrous. 
2 — 4  f.  S. 

12—1.    PAPAVER.    27.  62. 

Exotic. 

somniferum  (opium  poppy.  J.  ©),  calyx  and  capsule  glabrous  ;  leaves  clasp- 
ing, gashed,  glaucous. 

21—5.    PARMELIA.    57.  2. 


, ,  margin 

incurved,  entire,  at  length  pulverulent.     On  old  timber,  &c. 

5—4.     PARNASSIA.     14.  64. 

amerlca'na  (flowering  plantain,  w.  y.  p.  Ju.  4),  leaves  radical  (often  a  leaf  on 
the  scape),  heart-orbicular,  5  to  9  nerved ;  nectaries  five,  each  divided  into  3 
filaments  terminated  by  little  spherical  heads.    Damp  or  wet.    6—18  i. 
15—5.    PASSIFLORA.    34.  97. 

E.rot/C. 

ccp.ru'lea  (blue  passion-flower,  b.  Ju.  *> ),  leaves  palmate,  5  parted,  entire  ;  pe- 
tioles glandular ;  involucrum  3  leaved,  entire  ;  threads  of  the  crown  shorter 
than  the  corolla. 

5—2.    PASTINACA.    45.  60. 

E.rotic. 

sati'va  (parsnip,  y.  Au.  S ),  leaves  simply  pinnate  ;  leafets  glabrous.  Var.  ar- 
rensis,  leafets  sub-pubescent.  This  variety  is  often  found  in  situations  which 
almost  prove  it  to  be  indigenous. 


400  PEDICULARIS,  PHLOX. 

13—2.    PEDICULARIS.    40.  35. 

canaden"sis  (louse- wort.  O.  y-p.  M.  4),  stem  simple;  leaves  pinnatifid,  c. 
toothed  ;  heads  leafy  at  the  base,  hirsute ;  corolla  with  a  setaceous,  2  tooth- 
ed wpper  lip  ;  calyx  obliquely  truncate.    6 — 12  i.  S. 

15—7.    PELARGONIUM.    14.  73. 

Exotic. 

I.  Nearly  stemless  :   root  tuberous. 
trif"te  (mourning  geranium),  umbel  simple  ;  leaves  rough-haired,  pinnate ;  leaf- 

ets  bipinnatifid  ;  divisions  oblong-acute.    Flowers  dark  green. 
daucifo'lium  (carrot  geranium.  4),  scape  very  simple ;  leaves  thrice  pinnate, 
hirsute ;  leafets  lance-linear. 

2.  Leaves  simple,  not  angled. 

<>tloratis"simum  (sweet-scented  geranium.  > ),  peduncles  sub  5  flowered  -.  leave* 
round  cordate  very  soft. 

3.  Leaves  simple,  more  or  less  angled,  orldbed. 

zona'le  (horse-shoe  geranium.  > ),  umbels  many  flowered  :  leaves  heart-orbicu- 
lar, obsoletely  lobed,  toothed,  with  a  coloured  zone  or  band  around  near  the 
margin. 
in"quinans  (scarlet  geranium.    ^ ),  umbels  many-flowered  :  leaves  round  reni- 

tiirm,  hardly  divided,  crenate,  viscid-downy. 
acerifo'lium  (lemon  or  maple  leaf  geranium.  ^ ),  umbels  about  5  flowered ;  leaves 

5  lobe-palmate,  serrate ;  below  wedge-form,  undivided. 
capita'tum  (rose-scented  geranium.  > ),  flowers  capitate :  leaves  cordate,  lobed, 

waved,  soft :  stem  diffuse. 

quercifo'lium  (oak-leaf  geranium.    >),  umbels  sub-many-flowered  :  leaves  cor- 
date, pinnatifid,  crenate :  sinuses  rounded  :  filaments  ascending  at  the  apex. 
grave'olens  (sweet-rose  geranium.    >),  umbels  many-flowered,  sub-capitate: 
leaves  palmate  7  lobed ;  divisions  oblong,  obtuse  ;  margins  revolute. 

10—5.    PENTHORUM.    13.  83. 

sedo'ides  (Virginian  orpine.  O.  g-y.  Ju.  4),  stem  branching,  angled  ;  leaves 
lanceolate,  sub-sessile,  unequally  and  densely  serrate  ;  spikes  secund,  ter- 
minal, panicled,  alternate  and  cymed  ;  seeds  pitted.  12 — 18  i.  S. 

13—2.    PENTSTEMON.    40.  45. 

pvJbes"cens  (beard-tongue.  O.  w-p.  J.  4),  stem  hairy  ;  leaves  serrulate,  lance- 
oblong,  sessile  ;  flowere  panicled  ;  the  barren  filament  bearded  from  the 
apex  to  below  the  middle.  Var.  latifolia,  has  broad  smooth  leaves.  Vao. 
angustifoliat  has  narrow,  hairy,  obscurely  denticulate  leaves.  1 — 2  f.  S. 

3—2.    PHALARIS.    4.  10. 

america'na  (ribbon  grass,  wild  canary  grass.  E.  Ju.  4),  panicle  oblong,  spiked  ; 
glumes  of  the  calyx  boat-shaped,  serrulate  ;  corolla  unequal  :  rudiments 
hairy.  Var.  ;/icta,  leaves  variously  striped.  This  variety  is  the  ribbon  gras« 
of  the  gardens.  2— 5  f.  5. 

16—10.    PHASEOLUS.    32.  93. 

Exotic. 
Juna'tus  (Carolina  bean,  lima  bean.  g-w.  Ju.  ©),  twining ;  legumes  scymitar- 

form,  sub-lunate,  smooth ;  seeds  compressed. 

vulga'ris  (common-pale-bean,  p.  w.  Ju.  ©),  stem  twining ;  racemes  solitary, 
snorter  than  the  leaves  ;  peduncles  in  pairs  ;  bracts  smaller  than  the  calyx, 
spreading  ;  legumes  pendulous.  From  the  East  Indies. 

na'nus  (bush  bean,  six  weeks  bean.  @),  stem  erect,  smooth  :  bracts  larger  than 
the  calyx ;  legumes  pendulous,  compressed,  rugose.  Seeds  variously 
coloured. 

11—1.    PHILADELPHUS.     19.  89. 

Exotic. 

corona'rius  (mock  orange,  false  syringa.w.  J.  >),  styles  distinct;  leaves  ovato, 
sub-dentate. 

3—2.    PHLEUM.    4.  10. 

praten"se  (timothy  grass.  O.  J.  4  and  3 ),  spike  cylindric,  calyx  mucronate- 
.awned  ;  keel  ciliate  ;  awn  shorter  than  the  calyx  ;  culm  erect.  Introduced. 
2— 3f.  S. 

5—1.    PHLOX.    20.  44. 
panicula'ta  (smooth-stem  lichnidia.  r.  w.  Ju.  4),  glabrous,  erect :  leaves  lanceo- 


PHYTOLACC A,  POGONIA.  401 

late,  narrowing  gradually,  flat ;   margins  rough  ;  corymbs   panicled  :  divis- 
ions of  the  corolla  rounded  :  calyx  awned.    Cultivated.    2 — 3  f.  5. 

subula'ta  (mountain  pink.  O.  r.  M.  4),  caespitose,   white  pubescent :  leaves  li- 
near, pungent,  ciliate  :  corymbs  few  flowered  :  pedicels  3  cleft  :  divisions  of 
the  corolla  wedge-form,  emarginate ;  teeth  of  the  calyx  subulate,  scarcely 
shorter  than  the  tube  of  the  corolla.    Cultivated.     3— 6  i.  S. 
10—10.    PHYTOLAPCA.    54.  29. 

decan"dra  (poke-weed.  O.  w.  Ju.  4),  leaves  ovate,  acute  at  both  ends  :  flowers 
racemed  :  berries  ilattened  at  the  ends.    3 — 6  f.  <S. 
19—16.     PINUS.     51.  100. 

1.  Leaves  solitary,  with  separate  bases.     ABIES. 

canaden"sis  (hemlock  tree.  O.  M.   V ),  leaves  flat,  denticulate,  2  ranked  :  stro- 
biles ovate,  terminal,  scarcely  longer  than  the  leaves.    The  bark  is  used  in 
tanning  leather.  S. 

2.  Leaves  many,  sheathed  at  the  base.     PINUS. 

(Leaves  in  pairs.) 

resino'sa  (yellow  pine,  norway  pine,  red  pine.  O.  M,  ^ ),  leaves  and  sheaths 
elongated  =  strobiles  ovate-conic,  rounded  at  the  base,  sub-solitary,  about 
half  as  long  as  the  leaves  :  scales  dilated  in  the  middle,  unarmed.  Bark  of 
a  reddish  colour,  and  much  smoother  than  the  rigida  and  strobus.  Often 
grows  very  tall  and  straight.  S. 

(Leaves  in  threes.) 

rig"ida  (pitch  pine.  O.  M.  > ),  leaves  with  abbreviated  sheaths  ;  staminate 
aments  erect-incumbent :  strobiles  ovate,  scattered  or  aggregated  :  spines  of 
the  scale  reflexed.  Though  very  common,  it  grows  the  most  plentifully  on 
barren  sandy  plains.  -S. 

3.  Leaves  many,  in  a  fascicle.     LARJX. 

pen"dula  (black  larch,  tamarack,  hack-matack.  O.  M.  > ),  leaves  deciduous  : 
strobiles  oblong  :  margins  of  the  scales  inflexed  :  bract  guitar-form,  with  a 
slender  point. 

16—10.    PISUM.  32.  93.    ' 

Exotic. 

sati'vum  (pea.  p.  w.  J.  ©),  petioles  terete  :  stipules  round  and  crenate  at  the 
base  :  peduncles  many-flowered.  Var.  umbellatum  (boquet  pea),  has  the 
stipules  4  cleft,  acute.  Var.  quadratum  (quadrate  pea),  fruit  ash-colour,  4 
sided.  Var.  humile  (dwarf  pea),  stem  erect,  not  climbing  :  leafets  roundish. 

4—1.    PLANTAGO.    54.  31. 

ma'jor  (plantain.  O.  w.  J.  4),  leaves  ovate,  sub-dentate,  sub-glabrous  :  scape 
terete  :  spike  oblong,  imbricate.  6 — 24  i.  S. 

20—13.    PLATANUS.     50.  99. 

ocddenta"lis  (button  wood,  american  plane-tree,  false  sycamore.  O.  J.  S), 
leaves  quinquangular,  obsoletely  lobed,  toothed,  pubescent  beneath  :  stem 
and  branches  becoming  white.  Grows  to  a  greater  size  than  any  other  tree 
in  America'. 

3—2.    POA.    4.  10. 

Eaton  observes,  "  the  word  poa  is  pure  Greek,  and  signifies  pasture  or  fodder. 
Linnaeus  applied  the  name  to  this  genus,  because  it  includes  the  most  common 
pasture  grass  and  meadow  grass.  The  poa  pratensis,  aided  by  the  agrostic 
vulgaris,  constitutes  most  of  those  beautiful  carpets  which  cover  our  fields, 
lawns,  and  road-sides." 

an"nua(Aip.  ©),  panicle  sub-secund,  divaricate  :  spikelets  ovate-oblong,  5  flow- 
ered :  florets  free :  culm  oblique,  compressed  :  root  fibrous.    6 — 8  i.  S. 
praten"sis  (O.  J.  4),  panicle  diffuse  :  upper  leaves  much  shorter  than  the  smooth 
sheaths  :  florets  acute,  5  nerved,  webbed  at  the  base :  stipule  short  truncate  : 
•  root  creeping.    2—3  f.  S. 

12—1.    PODOPHYLLUM.    27.  61. 

pelta'tum  (wild  mandrake,  may-apple.  O.  w.  M.  4),  stem  terminated  with  2 
peltate  palmate  leaves  :  flower  single,  inserted  in  the  fork,  formed  by  the  pe- 
tioles of  the  leaves.  Sometimes  the  plant  is  3  leaved,  and  sometimes  the 
flower  is  inserted  on  the  side  of  one  of  the  petioles.  1—2  f.  S, 

18—1.    POGONIA.     7.  21. 

ophwgksso'ides  (snake  mouth  arethusa.  O.  r.  Ju.  4),  root  fibrous  :  scape 
34* 


402  POLYANTHES,  POTENTILLA. 

with  2   distant  leaves,   1  or  2  flowered :  leaves,  lance-oval :   lip  fringed. 
8—12  i.  S. 

6—1.    POLYANTHES.     10.  17. 

Exotir. 

tubero'sa  '(tuberose.  4),  flowers  alternate,  in  pairs  :  rootlets  tuberous :  scape 
scaly:  leaves  linear,  long.  Sweet  scented. 

16—6.    POLYGALA.    33.  35. 

paucifo'lia  (flowering  wintergreen.  O.  r.  M.  4),  small,  large-flowered  :  stem 
simple,  erect,  naked  below  :  leaves  ovate,  acute,  glabrous,  noar  the  top  of 
the  stem  :  flowers  crested,  terminal,  about  in  threes.  3 — 4  i.  5. 
stn"ega  (seneca  snake  root,  mountain  flax.  O.  r.  or  w.  J.  > ),  stem  erect,  simple, 
l«aty:  leaves  alternate,  lanceolate:  spike  terminal  filiform:  flowers  alter- 
nate, not  crested.  Var.  albida,  leaves  lanceolate  or  oval  :  spike  somewhat 
crowded  :  flowers  white,  sub-sessile.  8 — 14  i.  S. 

polyg"ama  rubella  of  Wildenow  (ground  flower.  O.  p.  J.  4),  stems  numerous  : 
leaves  linear-oblong,  alternate  downwards  :  racemes  terminal  and  lateral, 
elongated ;  flo\\  ors  sessile  :  radical  racemes  procumbent,  with  apterous 
flowers.  4 — 8  in. 

8—3.    POLYGONUM.    12.  28. 

amcula're  (knot-grass.  O.   w.  M.  4),  stamens  8,  styles  3  :  leaves  lanceolate, 
scabrous  at  the  margin  :  stipules  short,  lacerate  :  stem  procumbent :  flowers 
sub-sessile,  axillary,  minute.    6 — 12  i.  S. 
Exotic. 

fagop"yrum  (buck-wheat,  r-w.  Ju.  ©),  stamens  8;  styles  3 ;  racemes  pani- 
cled  ;  leaves  heart  sagittate  ;  stem  erectish,  unarmed  ;  angles  of  the  seeds 
equal.  1—2  f. 

21—1.    POLYPODIUM.    55.  5. 

vulga're  (polypod.  O.  Ju.  4),  frond  deeply  pinnatifid  ;  divisions  lance  linear, 
obtuse,  crenulate,  approximate,  upper  ones  gradually  smaller ;  fruit  dots 
solitary ;  root  chaffy.  8 — 12  i.  N. 

21—2.    POLYTRICHUM.    56.  4. 

juniperi'num  (hair-cap  moss.  O.  M.  4),  stem  generally  simple  ;  leaves  lance 
linear,  entire,  flattish,  somewhat  spreading ;  the  apophysis  depressed.  In 
dry  woods,  &c. 

6—1.    PONTEDERIA.    6.  17. 

corda'ta  (pickerel  weed.  O.  b.  Ju.  4),  leaves  heart  oblong,  obtuse ;  spike  many 
flowered,  compact ;  divisions  of  the  corolla  oblong.  Var.  angustifolia,  leaves 
elongated  triangular,  truncate  and  sub-cordate  at  the  base.  1 — 2  f. 

20—8.    POPULUS.    50.  99. 

trt,mulo'i(les,  (white  poplar,  American  aspen.  E.  Ap.  ^ ),  leaves  heart  roundish, 
abruptly  acuminate  ;  tooth  serrulate,  glabrous,  a  little  pubescent  at  the  mar- 
gin, with  two  glands  at  the  base  on  the  upper  side  ;  petioles  compressed,  in 
the  young  state  silky.  20—30  f. 

Exotic. 

dilata'ta  (lombardy  poplar,  italian  poplar,  Ap.  > ),  leaves  glabrous  both  sides, 
acuminate,  serrate,  deltoid,  the  breadth  equal  to  or  exceeding  the  length  ; 
branches  erect,  close  to  the  stem.  It  is  said  no  pistillate  plant  of  this  species 
has  been  brought  to  America.  Consequently  no  seeds  are  obtained  from  it, 
and  it  has  not  been  reproduced  here  from  seed.  40 — 80  f. 
12—1.  PORTULACCA.  54.  86. 

dfra'cea  (purslane.  O.  y.  J.  ®),  leaves  wedge  form  ;  flowers  sessile.  .5. 
11—13.    POTENTILLA.    35.  92. 
Leaves  digitate  in  fives,  rarely  in  sevens. 

canaden"sis  (common  five-finger.  O.  y.  31 4.),  procumbent,  sub-ramose,  whitish 
silky ;  stipules  ovate,  gashed  ;  leaves  wedge  obovate,  gash  toothed  ;  stem 
ascending,  and  creeping,  hirsute  ;  peduncles  solitary,  elongated  ;  divisions 
of  the  calyx  lance  linear ;  petals  orbicular,  sub-entire,  of  the  length  of  the 
calyx.  This  plant  is  so  long  in  flower,  and  assumes  so  many  forms  and  sizes, 
that  students  in  botany  often  make  several  species  of  it.  2—18  i.  S. 
argen"tea  (silver  five-finger.  O.  w-y.  Ju.  4),  stem  prostrate  and  ascending, 
rarely  sub-erect,  branching,  white  downy  ;  stipules  ovate  acute  ;  leaves 


POTERIUM,  PUNICA.  403 

wedge-form,  gash  toothed,  silvery  white  down  beneath  ;  petals  retuse, 
scarcely  longer  than  the  calyx.    4 — 10  i.    S. 

Leaves  more  or  less  pinnate. 

anseri'na  (tansey  cinquefoil.  O.  y.  J.  4),  creeping ;  leaves  interruptedly  pin- 
nate, numerous,  gash  serrate,  silky,  white  downy  beneath ;  peduncles  soli- 
tary, 1  flowered- 

19—13.    POTERIUM.    54.  92. 

Exotic. 

sanguisor"ba  (burnet.  J.  4),  stem  somewhat  angled,  unarmed ;  leaves  pinnate ; 
leafets  serrate  ;  flowers  in  heads. 

17—1.    PRENANTHES.    49.  53. 

al"ba  (white  lettuce.  O.  w.  p.  Au.  4),  radical  leaves  angled,  hastate,  toothed, 
somewhat  lobed ;  cauline  ones  round  ovate,  toothed,  petioled  ;  upper  ones 
most  lanceolate  ;  panicle  lax ;  the  terminal  fascicle  nodding ;  calyx  8  cleft, 
9  or  10  flowered.  Var.  nana,  Bw.  low  ;  leaves  3  parted,  hastate,  ovate  and 
lanceolate,  sometimes  all  simple ;  racemes  panicled  or  simple.  1 — 3  f.  S. 
5—1.  PRIMULA.  21.  34. 

Exotic. 
aca'uLis  (primrose.  4),  leaves  rugose,  toothed,  hirsute  beneath  ;    scape   1 

flowered. 

auric"tda  (auricula  primrose.  4),  leaves  serrate,  fleshy,  obovate ;  scape  many 
flowered ;  calyx  mealy. 

14—1.    PRUNELLA.    42.  39. 

vulga'ris,  var.pennsylvanica  (heal-all,  self-heal.  O.,J.  4),  leaves  petioled,  oblong 
ovate,  toothed  at  the  base;  lips  of  the  calyx  unequal  5  upper  one  truncate, 
awned ;  stem  ascending.  6 — 12.  i.  S. 

12—1.    PRUNUS.    36.  92. 

Flowers  in  racemes. 

virginia'na  (wild  cherry,  rum  cherry,  cabinet  cherry.  O.  w.  M.  > ),  racemes 
erect,  elongated  ;  leaves  oval  oblong,  acuminate,  unequally  serrate,  glabrous 
both  sides;  petioles  generally  bearing  4  glands.  In  open  fields  the  limbs 
of  this  tree  spread  out  into  an  elegant  oval  top  ;  but  in  dense  forests  it  grows 
to  a  very  great  height,  with  a  few  contracted  branches.  •$. 
scroli'na  (choke-berry.  O.  w.  J.  > ),  flowers  in  lax  racemes  ;  leaves  oval  short 
acuminate,  opake,  doubly  and  acutely  serrate  ;  midrib  bearded  on  each  side 
towards  the  base ;  petiole  with  2  glands.  This  and  the*  preceding  species 
have  been  confounded  by  many  botanists.  S. 

canaden"sis  (O.  w.  ^ ),  flowers  in  racemes  ;  leaves  glandless,  broad  lanceolate, 
rugose,  sharply  serrate,  pubescent  both  sides,  tapering  into  the  petiole.  S. 

Exotic. 
spino'sa  (english  sloe.   > ),  peduncles  solitary ;   leaves  lance  oval,  pubescent 

beneath ;  fruit  straight ;  branches  thorny. 
cer"asus  (garden  cherry,  w.  r.  ^ ),  umbel  sub-peduncled  ;  leaves  lance  ovate, 

glabrous,  conduplicate. 

domes"tica  (plumb,  w.  M.  ^),  peduncles  sub-solitary;  leaves  lance  ovate,  con- 
volute ;  branches  thornless.  Var.  Juliana  (damson  plum),  fruit  oblong,  blue. 
Var.  daudiana  (sweet  plum,  horse  plum),  fruit  round,  at  first  green,  becoming 
yellowish.  Var.  enucleata  (stoneless  plum)  the  putamen  obsolete. 

21—1.    PTERIS.    55.  5. 

aquili'na  (common  brake.  O.  Ju.  4),  frond  pinnate,  3  parted  ;  barren  branches 
'doubly  pinnate,  with  leafets  lance  linear,  obtuse  pinnatifid,  toothed  ;  fertile 
branches  pinnate,  with  leafets  pinnatifid  ;  divisions  acutish,  all  ciliate.  -S. 

10—1.    PTEROSPORA.     18.  51. 

androm"eda  (albany  beech-drops.  E.  r-y.  Ju.  ©),  scape  purple,  very  tall,  bearing 
a  many  flowered  raceme  ;  flowers  lateral  and  terminal,  nodding  ;  peduncles 
filiform,  longer  than  the  flowers  ;  lanceolate  scales  below,  none  above.  1 — 2  f. 
11—1.    PUNICA.    36  92. 

Exotic, 
grana'tum  (pomegranate.  > ),  leaves  lanceolate ;  stem  woody. 


404  PYCN  ANTHEM  1TM,  RHODODENDRON. 

13—1.    PYCNANTHEMUM.    42.  39. 

Stamens  exsert. 

ln"canum  (wild  basil,  mountain  mint.  O.  w.  r.  Ju.  4),  leaves  oblong  ovate, 
acute,  sub-serrate,  white  downy  ;  flowers  in  compound  heads,  lateral  ones  pe- 
duncled ;  bracts  setaceous.  1—5  f.  S. 

10—1.    PYROLA.    18.  51. 

rotundifo'lia  shin-leaf,  pear-lrat,  \\iut.  rgreen.  O.  w.  J.  4),  style  declined  ; 
leaves  rounded,  or  broad  oval  obsolelely  serrulate,  sub-coriaceous,  shining  ; 
petiole  about  as  long  as  the  lamina  ;  acape  many  flowered.  6 — 12  i. 
ettip'tica  ^O.  g-w.  Ju.  4),  leaves  membranaceous,  elliptical  ovate,  serrulate, 
rather  acute,  lamina  longer  than  the  petiolo  ;  scape  nearly  naked  ;  bracts 
subulate  ;  calyx  5  toothed  ;  style  declinate,  scape  10  in. 

11—5.    PYRUS.    36.  92. 

corona'ria  (crab  apple.  O.  w-r.  31.  > ),  leaves  broad  oval,  at  the  base  rounded, 
sub-angled  or  sub-lobed,  serrate,  smooth  ;  peduncles  corymbed.  Flowers 
sweet  scented.  5. 

Exotic, 
commu'nis  (pear.  E.  w-r.  M.  * ),  leaves  ovate,  serrate  (rarely  entire) ;  peduncles 

corymbed. 

ma'lus  (apple.  E.  w-r.  M.  > ),  flowers  in  sessile  umbels ;  leaves  ovate  oblong, 
acuminate,  serrate,  glabrous  ;  claws  of  the  petals  shorter  than  the  calyx  ; 
styles  glabrous.  Var.  sylvestris  (wild  apple),  leaves  ovate  serrate  ;  fruit 
small,  austere. 

cy'donia  (quince.  E.  w.  J.  > ),  flowers  solitary ;  fruit  tomentose ;  leaves  ovate, 
entire. 

Remark. — The  varieties  into  which  the  above  species  have  been  extended 
by  culture,  are  very  numerous. 

19—2.    QUERCUS.    59.  99. 

alba  (white  oak.  O.  M.  > ),  leaves  oblong,  sinuata  pinnatifid,  pubescent  beneath  ; 
lobes  obtuse,  entire,  narrowed  at  their  bases,  particularly  on  full  grown  trees ; 
fruit  peduncled  ;  calyx  somewhat  bowl  form,  tubercled  flattened  at  the  base ; 
acorn  ovate.    The  most  useful  timber  tree  in  America.    70—80  f.    S. 
12—13.    RANUNCULUS.    26.  61. 

Leaves  divided. 

aborti'vus  (O.  y.  M.  4),  glabrous  ;  stems  striate,  naked  below  ;  radical  leaves 
heart  reniform,  obtusely  crenate  ;  cauline  ones  petioled,  ternate,  angled  ; 
upper  ones  sessile  ;  branches  about  three  flowered.  9 — 15  i.  S. 
re'pens  (O.  y  31.  4),  pubescent ;  leaves  ternate,  3  cleft,  gashed  ;  creeping 
shoots  sent  off  in  the  summer  ;  peduncles  furrowed  ;  calyx  spreading. 
Damp. 

a'cri*  (crowfoot,  butter  cup.  O  y.  M  4),  hairs  close  pressed,  leaves  3  parted, 

many  cleft  ;  upper  ones  linear ;  peduncles  terete  ;  calyx  spreading.    1 — 2  f. 

14—2.    REPHANUS.    39.  63. 

Exotic. 

sati'vus  (garden  radish,  w.  J.  ©),  leaves  lyrate;  silique  terete,  torose,  2  celled. 
There  are  several  varieties  of  this  species — one  has  a  fusiform,  another  a 
globose,  another  a  black  root. 

9—3.    RHEUM.    12.  28. 

Exotic. 

palma'tum  (rhubarb.  J.  4),  leaves  palmate,  acuminate.    From  China. 
rhapon"ticum  (pie  rhubarb,  w.  J.  4),  leaves  heart  ovate,  obtuse  and  acute 
smooth  ;    veins  sub-pilose  beneath,  the  sinus  at  the  base  dilated  ;    petioles 
furrowed  on  the  upper  side,  rounded  at  the  edge.      Radical  leaves  very 
large.    2— 4  f. 

10—1.  RHODODENDRON.  18.  50. 

max"imum  (wild  rosebay.  E.  r.  Ju.  > ),  leaves  oblong,  glabrous,  paler  beneath  ; 
umbels  terminal,  dense ;  corollas  somewhat  bell-form.  4 — 20  f. 

Exotic. 

pon"ticum  (rose  bay.  p.  > ),  leaves  oblong,  glabrous,  both  sides  coloured  alike  ; 
corymbs  terminal ;  corolla  bell  wheel  form  ;  petals  lanceolate. 


RHUS,  ROSA.  405 

5—3.    RHUS.    43.  94. 

gla'brum  (sleek  sumach.  O.  g.  r.  Ju.  ^ ),  branches,  petioles  and  leaves  glabrous ; 
leaves  pinnate,  many  paired ;  leafets  lance  oblong,  serrate,  whitish  beneath ; 
fruit  silky.  The  leaves  of  both  the  species  are  used  for  tanning  morocco 
leather.  Berries  red  and  sour.  6 — 12  f. 

ver"nix  (poison  sumach,  y-g.  J— Ju.  <• ),  very  smooth  ;  leaves  pinnate  ;  leafets 
in  many  pairs,  oval,  abruptly  acuminate,  entire ;  panicle  loose ;  flowers  dioe- 
cious. A  small  tree.  S. 

toxicoden"dron  (O.  g-y.  J— Ju.  > ),  stem  erect ;  leaves  ternate  ;   leafets  broad 
oval,  entire  or  sinuate  dentate,  sub-pubescent  beneath  ;  flowers  dioecious  in 
sessile  axillary  racemes.  1 — 3  f.    Var.  radicans  (poison  ivy),  stem  climbing. 
Exotic. 

cof'inus  (false  fringe-tree,  Aaron's  beard,  p-g.  Ju.  >),  leaves  simple,  obovate 
and  ovate  ;  panicle  racemes  plumose.  A  small  tree,  with  very  minute  flow- 
ers supported  on  capillary,  downy,  or  hairy  peduncles.  Indigenous  to  Sibe- 
beria,  Austria  and  Lombardy. 

5—1.    RIBES.    36.  85. 
Currant  like.    Flowers  racemed. 

flo'ridum  (wild  black  currant.  O.  M.  ^ ),  unarmed  ;  leaves  punctate  both 
sides  ;  racemes  pendant;  calyx  cylindric  ;  bracts  longer  than  the  pedicels. 
3—4  f.  S. 

Gooseberry  like.    Peduncles  mostly  few  flowered,  rarely  sub-racemed. 

trifio'rum  (wild  gooseberry.  A.  g.  M.  > ),  spine  sub-axillary ;  leaves  glabrous, 
3 — 5  lobed,gash  toothed  ;  peduncles  sub  3  flowered ;  with  the  pedicels  elon- 
gated ;  bracts  very  short ;  petals  spatulate,  undulate;  style  hirsute,  half  2  or 
3  cleft,  exsert ;  berry  glabrous.    Berries  pale  red.    3—4  f.    S. 
Exotic. 

ru'brum  (currant,  g.  M.  > ),  unarmed  ;  racemes  glabrous,  nodding  ;  corolla 
flat ;  petals  obcordate ;  leaves  obtusely  5  lobed  ;  stem  erect.  Berries  red. 
2— 4f. 

ni'grufn  (black  currant,  g.  M.  ^ ),  unarmed  ;  leaves  punctate  beneath  ;v  ra- 
cemes lax ;  flowers  bell  form ;  bracts  shorter  than  the  pedicels.  Berries 
black.  5— 3f. 

grossula'ria  (English  gooseberry,  g.  M.  ^ ),  branches  prickly  ;  petioles  hairy ; 
bracts  2  leaved  ;  berry  glabrous  or  hirsute.    2—4  f. 
19—15.    RICINUS.    38.  96. 
Exotic. 

commu'nis  (castor  oil  plant,  palma  christi.  ©),  leaves  peltate,  palmate  ;  lobes 
lanceolate,  serrate ;  stem  with  hoary  mealiness.    4 — 6  f. 
16—10.    ROBINIA.    32.  93. 

pseudo-aca'cia  (locust-tree,  false  acacia.  A.  w.  M.  $ ),  leaves  pinnate,  with  a 
terminal  leafet ;  stipules  thorny,  or  a  thorn ;  racemes  pendant ;  teeth  of  the 
calyx  unawned ;  legumes  smooth.  30—40  f.  S. 

11—13.    ROSA.    35.  93. 

parvi'Jlora  (wild  rose.  O.  r.  w.  ^ ),  germs  depressed  globose  ;  germs  and  pedun- 
cles hispid  ;  petioles  pubescent,  sub-aculeate ;  stem  glabrous ;  prickles  stipu- 
lar,  straight ;  leafets  lance  oval,  simply  serrate,  glabrous  ;  flowers  somewhat 
in  pairs.  Very  variable.  1 — 3  f.  S. 

rubigino'sa  (sweet  briar.  E.  r.  J.  >),  germ  ovate;  peduncles  and  petioles  glan- 
dular hispid ;  petioles  somewhat  prickly ;  stem  glabrous ;  prickles  scattered, 
hooked,  slender  ;  leafets  (5  or  7),  ovate,  serrate,  sub-glandular  beneath.  3 
— 4  f.  S. 

Exotic. 

cam'na.  (dog  rose.  > ),  germs  ovate ;  germs  and  peduncles  glabrous ;  stem  and 
petioles  prickly  ;  leaves  ovate,  glabrous. 

•raVlica  (french  rose,  common  rose.  r.  J.  5 ),  germs  ovate ;  germs  and  pedun- 
cles hispid ;  stem  and  petioles  hispid-prickly.  Sometimes  the  colours  are 
variegated. 

damasce'na  (damask  rose.  w.  r.  J.  ^>),  calyx  half  pinnate;  germ  ovate,  turgid 
(thickened  near  its  top),  bristly ;  stem  and  petioles  prickly ;  leafets  ovate, 
pointed,  downy  beneath. 

musco'sa  (moss  rose.  r.  Au.   ^ ),  germs  ovate ;  calyx,  peduncles,  petioles  and 


406  ROSMARINUS,  RUMEX. 

branches  hispid,  glandular  viscid  (moss  like)  ;  spines  of  the  branches  scat- 

tered, straight. 
moscha'ta  (musk  rose.  >  ),  germs  ovate;  germs  and  peduncles  villose;  stem  and 

petioles  prickly  ;  leafets  oblong,  acuminate,  glabrous  ;  panicle  many  How 

ered. 
bur^und'ui'ca  (burgundy  rose.  >  ),  germs  sub-globose  ;  germs  and  peduncles  his- 

pid ;  leafets  ovate,  pubescent  beneath  ;  corolla  small,  full,  fleshy  white  ;  disk 

obscure.    Var.  provincialis,  has  scattered  reflexed  prickles  on  the  branches, 

and  glandular  serratures. 
semerflo'rens  (monthly  rose.   ^  ),  germs  ovate  oblong,  tapering  to  both  ends  ; 

germs  and  peduncles  hispid;  stem  prickly;  flowers  in  erect  corymbs.    Re- 

sembles damascena. 
dlha  (white  rose.  w.  J.  ^  ),  germs  ovate,  glabrous  or  hispid  ;  stem  and  petioles 

prickly  ;  leafets  ovate,  villose  beneath. 
centifo'lia  (hundred  leaved  rose.  r.  ^),  germs  ovate;  germs  nnd  peduncles  his- 

pid ;  stem  hispid,  prickly  ;  leaves  pubescent  beneath  ;  petioles  unarmed. 
cinnamo'mea  (cinnamon  rose.    >  ),  germs  globose  ;  germs  and  peduncles  gla- 

brous ;  stem  with  stipular  prickles  ;  petioles  somewhat  unarmed  ;  leafets  ob- 

long.   R.  majalis.     Stem  brown  cinnamon  colour. 
mnltijlo'ra  (japan  rose.  ^),  germs  ovate;  germs  and  peduncles  unarmed,  vil- 

lose ;  stem  and  petioles  prickly.    Branches  generally  purple  ;  leafets  ovate  ; 

flowers  small,  panieled. 

2—1.  •  ROSMARINUS.    42.39. 

Exotic. 

officinal**  (rosemary.  *  ),  leaves,  some  green  both  sides  ;  others  whitish  be- 
neath, linear  ;  margins  revolute. 

4—1.    RUBIA.    47.  57. 


tincto'ria,  (madder),  leaves  lanceolate,  about  in  sixes  ;  stem  prickly,  climbing. 
Var.  sylvestris,  lower  leaves  in  sixes,  upper  ones  in  fours  or  in  pairs. 

11—13.    RUBUS.    35.  92. 

ide'iu  (garden  raspberry.  E.  w.  M.  >  ),  leaves  quintate-pinnate  and  temate  ; 
loafers  rhomb  ovate,  acuminate,  downy  beneath  ;  petioles  channelled  ;  stem 
prickly,  hispid  flowers  sub-panicled.  Var.  americanus,  branchlets  nearly 
glabrous  ;  stem  and  petioles  terete  ;  leaves  all  temate  ;  pedicels  -somewhat 
prickly.  4—  6  f.  S. 

viuo'sus  (high  blackberry.  O  w.  J.  >  ),  pubescent,  hispid  and  prickly  ;  leaves 
digitate,  in  threes  or  fives  ;  leafets  ovate,  acuminate,  serrate,  hairy  both  sides  ; 
stem  and  petioles  prickly  ;  calyx  short  acuminate  ;  racemes  naked  ;  petals 
lance  ovate.  4-^6  f.  S. 

strigo'gus  (red  raspberry.  O.  w.  J.  V  \  unarmed,  rigidly  hispid  ;  leafets  3,  or 
pinnate  quinate,  oval,  at  the  base  obtuse,  acuminate,  marked  with  lines,  and 
whitg-downy  beneath,  terminal  one  often  sub-cordate.  Fruit  red,  sweet. 
ocddenta'lis  black  raspberry.  O.  w.  g.  >),  branches  and  petioles  glaucous  and 
prickly  ;  leaves  ternate,  oval,  acuminate,  sub-lohate  and  doubly  serrate,  \vhit< 
downy  beneath  ;  petioles  terete  ;  prickles  recurved.  4  —  8  f.  S. 
trivia'tis  'creeping  blackberry,  dew  berry.  O.  w  J.  ^>  ),  sarmentose  procumbent  ; 
petioles  and  peduncles  aculeate  hispid,  with  the  prickles  recurved  ;  stipules 
subulate  ;  leaves  ternate  or  quinate,  oblong  oval,  acute,  unequally  serrate, 
sub-pubescent  ;  pedicels  solitary,  elongated.  Var.  flagdlaris  •,  has  orbicular 
petals,  and  small  smooth  leaves.  S. 

odora'tus  (flowering  raspberry.  E.  r.  J.  *>  ),  unarmed,  erect,  viscid  hispid  ; 
leaves  simple,  acutely  3  or  5  lobed  ;  corymbs  terminal,  spreading.  Flowers 
large  ;  berries  rather  dry  and  thin.  3  —  6  f.  S. 

17—3.    RUDBECKIA.    49.  55. 

lacinia'ta  (cone  flower,  cone  disk  sunflower.  O.  y.  Au.  4),  lower  leaves  pinnate  ; 
leafets  3  lobed  ;  upper  ones  ovate  ;  egret  crenate  ;  stem  glabrous.  Damp. 
5-10  f.  S. 

6—3.    RUMEX.    12.  28. 

oris"pus  (dock.  O.  Ju.  4),  valves  of  tho  calyx  ovate,  entire,  all  bearing  grain 
like  appendages  on  their  backs  ;  leaves  lanceolate,  undulate,  acute.    2  —  3  f. 
ascetosel"lus  (field  sorrel  O.  g.  p.  M.  4),  valves  without  grains  ;  leaves  lance 
hastate;  flowers  dicecious,    6—12  i. 


RUTA,  SARRACENIA.  407 

Exotic. 

patien"tia  (garden  dock,  patience,  4),  valves  entire,  one  of  them  bearing  a  grain 
like  appendage  ;  leaves  lance  ovate.    Naturalized. 
10—1.     RUTA.    26.  81. 

Exotic. 

irrave'oleni  (rue),  leaves  more  than  decompound ;  leafets  oblong,  terminal  ones 
obovate ;  petals  entire. 

3—2.    SACCHARUM.    4.10. 

Exotic. 

ojficina'rum  (sugar  cane),  flowers  panicled,  in  pairs,  one  sessile  and  one  pedicel- 
led  ;  corolla  1  valved,  awnless.    From  the  East  Indies. 
19—12.    SAGITTARIA.    5. 13. 

sagittifo'lia  (arrow  head.  O.  w.  Ju.  4),  leaves  lanceolate  acute,  sagittate  ;  lobes 
lanceolate,  acute,  straight.  Var.  latifolia,  leaves  ovate,  sub-acute,  sagittate ; 
lobes  ovate,  slightly  acuminate,  straight.  Var.  major,  leaves  large,  abruptly 
acute ;  scape  sub-ramose.  1 — 2  f.  <S. 

1—1.     SALICORNIA.     12.29. 

herba'cea  (samphire,  glasswort.  L.  Au.  ©),  herbaceous,  spreading ;  joints  com- 
pressed at  the  apex,  emarginate-bifid.  Var.  virginica,  has  the  branches  un- 
divided, and  the  jointed  spikes  very  long.  The  fructification  is  very  ob- 
scure ;  but  it  maybe  known  by  its  leafless  nearly  cylindric  jointed  branches. 
It  grows  in  salt  marshes  along  the  sea-board.  Onondaga  salt  springs.  12 
—18  i.  S. 

20—2.     SALIX.    50.  99. 

babylo'nica  (weeping  willow.  E.  M.  > ),  branchlets  pendant ;  leaves  lanceolate, 
acuminate,  serrate,  glabrous,  upper  and  lower  sides  of  different  colours  ;  sti- 
pules roundish,  contracted  :  aments  flower  at  leafing  time ;  germs  sessile, 
ovate,  glabrous.  Supposed  to  be  the  willow  on  which  the  Israelites  hung 
their  harps,  when  captive  in  Babylon.  Introduced.  S. 
2—1.  SALVIA.  42.  39. 

Exotic. 

officina'lis  (sage,  b  J.  4.  or  ^ ),  leaves  lance-ovate,  crenulate ;  whorls  few- 
flowered  ;  calyx  mucronate. 

scla'ra  (clarry.  $ ),  leaves  rugose,  cordate,  oblong,  villose,  serrate  ;  floral  bracts 
longer  than  the  calyx,  concave,  acuminate. 

5—3.    SAMBUCUS.    43.  58. 

canaden"sis  (black-berried  elder.  O.  w.  J.  > ),  branchlets  and  petioles  glabrous  ; 
leafets  about  in  4  pairs,  oblong-oval,  glabrous,  shining,  acuminate  ;  cyme 
lax,  divided  into  about  5  parts.  8 — 15  f. 

puhes"cem  (red-berried  elder.  O.  w.  M.  >),  bark  warty  ;  leafets  in  2  pairs, 
lance-oval,  pubescent  beneath  :  flowers  raceme-panicled,  or  in  a  crowded 
bunch.  6—12  f. 

13—1.    SANGUINARIA.    27.  62. 

•    canaden"sis  (blood-root.  O.  w.  Ap.  4),  leaves  sub-renilbrm,  sinuate-lobed  : 
scape  1  flowered.    A  variety,  stenopetala,  has  linear  petals.    6 — 10  i.  S. 

4—2.    SANGUISORBA.    54.  92. 

canaden"sis  (burnet  saxifrage,  w.  Ju.  4),  flowers  in  a  long  cylindric  spike  : 
stamens  several  times  longer  than  the  corollas.  The  leaves  resemble  the 
burnet.  3— 5  f .  S. 

5—2.    SANICULA.    45.  60. 

marylan"dica  (O.  w.  June — Au.  4),  leaves  all  digitate  ;  leafets  oblong,  deeply 
serrate  ;  staminate  flowers  numerous,  pedicelled.     2  f  S. 
10—2.    SAPONARIA.    22.  82. 

Exotic. 

officina'lis  (soapwort,  bouncing  bet.  w.  J.  4),  calyx  cylindric  ;  leaves  lance- 
ovate,  opposite  sub-connate,  entire.  Probably  introduced,  and  naturalized. 
10—18  i. 

12—1.    SARRACENIA.    54.  62. 

purpu'rea  (side-saddle.  O.  p.  J.  4),  leaves  radical,  short,  gibbose-inflated  or 
cup-form,  contracted  at  the  mouth,  having  a  broad  arched  lateral  wing  ;  the 


408  SATUREJA,  SILENE. 

contracted  part  of  the  base  hardly  as  long  as  the  inflated  part     Scape  with 
a  single,  large  nodding  flower.    In  marshes.     1 — 2  f.  5. 

13—1.    SATUREJA.    42.  39. 

horten"sis  (summer  savory,  b-w.  Ju.  ©),  peduncles  axillary,  somewhat  in  cyme; 
leaves  lanceolate,  entire .-  stem  brachiate. 

7—4.    SAURURUS.    2.  6. 

cer"nuus  (lizard's  tail,  breast  weed.  W.  Au.  4),  stem  angular,  sulcate  ;  leaven 
alternate,  heart-oblong,  acuminate.  Rare  in  New  York  east  of  Cayuga 
Lake— abundant  west  of  it.  1—2  f. 

10—2.    SAXIFRAGA.    13.  84. 
Leaves  radical,  undivided  :  stem  nearly  naked. 

virginien"sis  (rock  saxifrage.  O.  w.  M.  4),  minutely  pubescent ;  leaves  oval 
obtuse,  crenate,  decurrent  into  the  petiole  ;  flowers  sub-sessile  on  the  di- 
chotomous  branches  of  an  almost  leafless  scape.  1—  15  i.  S. 
pensylva'nica  (water  saxifrage.  O.  y-g.  M.  J.  4),  pubescent ;  leaves  oblong- 
lanceolate,  acute  at  each  extremity,  obsoletely  toothed  ;  stem  naked ;  panicle 
oblong,  flowers  fasciculate  ;  petals  linear,  longer  than  the  calyx  ;  capsule 
•uperior.  18—28  i. 

Exotic, 

sarmento'sa  (beef-steak,  creeping  saxifrage   w.  Au.  4),  leaves  roundish,  tooth- 
ed, hairy ;  sending  off  creeping  shoots  ;  2  petals  in  each  flower  elongated. 
6—1.    SCILLA.    10.  14. 

Exotic. 

marit"ima  (squill,  w).  scape  long,  naked,  many-flowered  ;  bracts  bent  back. 
Root  bulbous. 

13—2.    SCROPHULARIA.    40.  40. 

marylan"dica  (figwort.  O.  g-p.  Ju.  4),  leaves  cordate,  serrate,  acute,  rounded 
at  the  base ;  petioles  ciliate  below  ;  panicle  fasciculate,  loose,  few-flowered  ; 
stem  obtusely  angled.  2 — 4  f.  S. 

13—1.    SCUTELLARIA.    42.  39. 

lateriftofra  (mad-dog  scull-cap,  hood-wort.  O.  b.  Ju.  4),  branching,  glabrous  ; 
leaves  long-pet ioled,  ovate,  toothed  ;  cauline  ones  sub-cordate ;  racemes 
lateral,  leafy.  Damp.  1—2  f.  *S. 

galericula'ta  (scull-cap.  O.  b.J.  4\  branching  ;  leaves  sub-sessile,  lance-ovate, 
sub-cordate  at  the  base,  crenate,  a  little  white-downy  beneath ;  flowers  axil- 
lary, solitary  or  in  pairs.  Flowers  large.  Damp.  12 — 18  i. 

3—2.    SECALE.    4.  10. 

cerea'le  (rye.  J.  £),  glumes  and  bristles  scabrous-ciliate  :  corolla  smooth.  In- 
troduced. 

10—5.     SEDUM.    13.  83. 

terna'tum  (false  ice-plant.  W.  w.  J.  4),  small,  creeping :  leaves  flat,  round- 
spatulate,  ternate  :  flowers  somewhat  3  spiked.  Varies  into  the  eighth  class. 
Cultivated.  S. 

Exotic, 
tetephium  (orpine,  live-forever,  r.  w.  Ju.  4),  leaves   flattish,  tooth-serrate, 

thickly-scattered  ;  corymb  leafy  ;  stem  erect. 

anacampr'sero*  (stone-crop.  4),  leaves  wedge-form,  entire,  sub-sessile;  stem 
decumbent ;  flowers  corymbed. 

12—13.    SEMPERVIVUM.    13.  83. 

Exotic. 

tecto'rum  (houseleek.  Au.  4),  leaves  ciliate  ;  bulbs  spreading  ;  nectaries  wedge- 
form,  crenulate. 

arbo'reiun  (tree  houseleek),  stem  woody,  smooth,  branching  ;  leaves  wedge- 
form,  glabrous,  with  soft  spreading  hairs. 

15—12.     SIDA.    37.  74. 

abu'tilon  (indian  mallows.  E.  y.  Ju.  @),  leaves  round-cordate,  acuminate, 
toothed,  tomentose  ;  peduncles  solitary,  shorter  than  the  petioles  ;  capsules 
2  awned,  truncate.  4—6  f.  5. 

10—3.    SILENE.    22.  82. 
pcnsylva'nica  (pink-catchfly.  p.  M.  J.  4),  viscidly  pubescent ;  radical  leaves 


SIN  APIS,  SOLID  AGO,  409 

wedge-form ;  stem  leaves  lanceolate  5  panicles  trichotomous  ;  petals  slightly 
emarginate,  very  obtuse,  sub-crenate.    8 — 12  i.  S. 

virgin"ica  (r.  J.  4),  erect  or  decumbent ;  yiscidly  pubescent  ;  leaves  lance- 
oblong,  scabrous  on  the  margin;  panicle  dichotomous  ;  petals  bifid;  stamens 
exsert.  12  i.  S. 

14—2.    SINAPIS.    39.  63. 
Exotic. 

ni'gra  (common  mustard,  y.  J.  ©),  silique  glabrous,  4  angled,  close  pressed  to 
the  stem  ;  leaves  at  the  top  lance-linear,  entire,  smooth.    Naturalized. 
15—3.     SISYRINCHIUM.    6.  18. 

an"ceps  (blue-eyed  grass.  O.  b.  J.  4),  scape  (or  culm)  simple,  2  edged  or  2 
winged  ;  glume-like  spatha  of  2  unequal  valves,  extending  above  the  flower ; 
petals  mucronate.  6—12  i.  S. 

20—6.    SMILAX.     11.  12. 

rotundifo'lia  (green  brier.  O.  w-g.  Ju.  > ),  stem  prickly,  sub-terete  ;  leaves  un- 
armed, roundish-ovate,  short-acuminate,  cordate,  5-7  nerved  ;  berries  spheri- 
cal. S. 

5—1.    SOLANUM.    28    41. 

dulcama'ra  (bittersweet.  E.  p-b.  Ju.  >),  stem  unarmed,  woody,  climbing; 
lower  leaves  mostly  cordate,  glabrous  ;  upper  ones  mostly  guitar-hastate, 
few-flowered  ;  corymbs  opposite  to  the  leaves.  This  is  the  true  bittersweet ; 
but  the  Celastrus  scandens  is  wrongly  called  so  by  some.  Damp. 

ni'grum  (deadly  night-shade.  O.  w.  p.  b.  J.  ©),  stem  unarmed,  erectish  or 
erect ;  branches  angled,  dentate  ;  leaves  ovate,  repand,  glabrous  ;  racemes 
2  ranked,  nodding.  1—2  f.  S. 

Exotic. 

lubero'sum  (potato,  b.  w.  Ju.  ^),stem  wing-angled,  unarmed  ;  leaves  inter- 
ruptedly pinnate  ;  leafets  entire  ;  flowers  sub-corymbed  ;  roots  knobbed- 
tuberous.  Cultivated. 

lycoper"sicum  (love  apple,  tomatoes,  y.  S.  ©),  stem  unarmed  ;  leaves  pinnati- 
fid,  gashed  ;  racemes  2  parted,  leafless  ;  fruit  glabrous,  torulose. 

melong"ena  (egg-plant.  J.  ©),  stem  unarmed  ;  leaves  ovate,  tomentose  ;  pedun- 
cles pendant,  incrassate  ;  calyx  unarmed. 

pseudo-cap' 'sicum  (Jerusalem  cherry.  > ),  stem  woody ;  leaves  lanceolate,  re- 
pand ;  umbels  sessile. 

17_2.     SOLIDAGO.    49.  55. 
1.  Flowers  one-sided.    Leaves  with  three  combined  nerves. 

canaden"sis  (Canadian  golden-rod.  O.  y.  Ju.  4),  stem  downy ;  le'aves  lanceo- 
late, serrate,  rough  ;  racemes  copious  panicled,  recurved  ;  rays  hardly  longer 
than  the  disk ;  stem  angular ;  leaves  sessile,  three  inches  long,  sometimes 
nearly  entire.  2 — 5  f.  &. 

gigan"tea  (giant  golden-rod.  O.  y.  Au.  4,)  stem  erect,  glabrous  ;  leaves  lance- 
olate, smooth,  serrate,  rough-edged,  obscurely  3  nerved  ;  racemes  panicled  ; 
peduncles  rough-haired  ;  rays  short.  4 — 7  f.  S. 

lateriflo'ra  (side-flowered  golden  rod.  y.'  Au.  4),  stem  erect,  a  little  hairy; 
leaves  lanceolate,  slightly  3  nerved,  glabrous,  rough-edged  ;  lower  ones  sub- 
serrate  ;  racemes  panicled,  a  little  recurved,  sub-secund  ;  flowers  large,  the 
rays  being  much  longer  ^han  the  calyx  ;  stem  striated,  often  purplish,  pinna- 
tifid,  with  numerous  lateral  flowering  branches.  2 — 3  f.  S. 
2.  Racemes  or  flowers  one-sided.  Leaves  veiny. 

<iltis"sima  (variable  golden-rod.  O.  y.  Au.  4),  stem  erect,  ro«;gh-haired  ;  leaves 
lanceolate ;  lower  ones  deeply  serrate,  scabrous,  rugose.  The  panicled  ra- 
cemes are  very  numerous  and  spread  eveiy  way,  so  as  to  bring  the  one-sided 
flowers  upwards  ;  rays  half  as  long  again  as  the  calyx.  But  this  species  is 
so  variable  that  students  generally  endeavour  to  make  several  species  of  it. 
The  serratures  of  the  leaves  are  equal  and  unequal  ;  it  is  hairy  or  villose  ; 
and  sometimes  the  racemes  diverge  but  little.  3 — 6  f.  £. 

pat"ida  (spread  golden  rod.  O.  y.  S.  4),  stern  erect^,  glabrous ;  leaves  oval,  ser- 
rate, glabrous  ;  radical  ones  oblong-spatulate ;  racemes  panicled,  spreading ; 
peduncles  pubescent.  Stem  wand-like,  angular  and  striate  ;  stem-leaves 
sessile,  about  an  inch  long,  pointed  ;  the  radical  ones  resemble  those  of  the 
ox-eyed  daisy  ;  racemes  about  an  inch  long  ;  flowers  rather  large.  2  f.  S. 

35 


410  SORGHUM,  SYRINGA, 

3.  Racemes  erect. 

bi'-colour  (white  golden-rod.  O.  w.  Au.  4),  stem  hairy  ;  leaves  oval,  hairy ;  lower 

ones  serrate  ;  those  on  the  flower  branches  entire,  numerous,  and  small ; 

scales  of  the  calyx  obtuse.    Racemes  are  short  and  compact ;  rays  white, 

somewhat  numerous  and  shortish  ;  disk  florets  rather  numerous.    2—4  f.  -S. 

3—2.    SORGHUM.    4.  10. 

Exotic. 

tacchara'tum  (broom-corn,  y-g.  Au.  ©),  panicle  somewhat  whorled,  spreading  ; 
seeds  oval ;  glumes  covered  with  permanent  softish  hairs  ;  leaves  linear. 
From  the  East  Indies.  6—8  f. 

10—5.    SPERGULA.    22.  82. 

arven"sis  (spurry.  w.  Ju.  @),  leaves  whorled  :  panicles  dichotoraous  ;  pedun- 
cles of  the  fruit  becoming  reflexed.  6 — 10  i.  S. 

20—5.    SPINACIA.     12.  28. 

Exotic. 

olera'cea  (spinach.  J.  ©),  fruit  sessile,  prickly  or  unarmed  ;  leaves  hastate-sagit- 
tate ;  stem  branched.    In  habit  resembles  the  Chenopodium  album.     1 — 2  f. 
11—5.    SPIRAEA.    36.  92. 

Stem  more  or  less  woody. 

xdiciff/lia  (meadow  sweet,  willow  hard-hack.  O  r.  w.  J.  >),  leaves  lanco- 
ovate  or  obovate,  serrate,  glabrous  ;  flowers  in  panicled  spreading  racemes. 
Var. '//'",  has  white  petals,  and  generally  the  twigs  are  reddish.  The  small 
branches  are  generally  killed  by  frost  in  the  winter,  as  also  of  the  next 
species.  2—4  f.  S. 

tomt'tUo'sa  (steeple  bush,  purple  hard-hack,  meadow-sweet.  O.  r.  Ju.  > ),  leaves 
lanceolate,  unequally  serrate,  downy  beneath  :  racemes  in  a  crowded,  sub- 
panicled,  spike.  2— 3f.  S. 

kgperictf&ba  (John's  wort,  hard-hack,  w.  M.  > ),  leaves  obovate,  entire  or  tooth- 
ed at  the  apex  ;  umbels  sessile.  Cultivated.  3  f. 

opulifo'lia  (nine-bark,  snow-ball,  hard-hack.  E.  w.  J.  >),  leaves  sub-ovate, 
lobed,  douHy  toothed  or  crenate,  glabrous ;  corymbs  terminal,  crowded  ; 
capsules  inflated  ;  flowers  trigynious.  Wet.  3 — 5  f.  S. 

Exotic. 

nbna'ria  (queen  of  the  meadow,  w.  Au.  4),  leaves  pinnate,  downy  beneath  ; 
the  terminal  leafets  larger,  3  lobed  ;  the  lateral  ones  undivided  :  flowers  in 
a  proliferous  corymb.  Stem  herbaceous. 

13-1.    STACHYS.    42.  39. 

as"pera  (hedge  nettle,  clown  heal.  O.  w-p.  Ju.  4),  stem  erect,  hispid  backwards ; 
leaves  sub-petioled,  lanceolate,  acutely  serrate,  very  glabrous  ;  whorls  about 
6  flowered  :  calyx  with  spreading  spines.  Var.  tenuifolia,  leaves  very  thin 
and  slender. 

5—3.    STAPHYLEA.    23.    95. 

trifolia  (bladder  nut.  E.  y-w.  M.  ^ ),  leaves  in  threes ;  racemes  pendant ;  petals 
ciliate  below.  When  in  flower,  if  the  germ  be  cut  transversely  and  examin- 
ed, it  will  appear  2  or  3  celled,  and  will  contain  the  rudiments  of  15  to  20 
seeds.  But  when  the  fruit  is  ripe,  it  consists  of  2  or  3  inflated,  adnate,  sub- 
membranous  capsules,  each  containing  1  to  3  hard  small  nuts.  6 — 12  f.  S. 

16—10.    STROPHOSTYLES.     32.  93. 
angulo'sa  (E.  p.  Au.  ©),  leaves  ternate ;  leafets  angular,  2-3  lobed  ;  ped uncles 

longer  than  the  leaves  :  flowers  capitate.  <S. 

hel"vola  (r.),    prostrate,  sometimes  twining;   leaves  temate,  deltoid-oblong; 
flowers  capitate ;  banner  short ;  wings  large,  expanded.  /S. 
5—1.    SYMPHITUM.    41.  42. 

Exotic. 

qffi<ina'le  fcomfrey.  y-w.  J.  4),  leaves  ovate  sub-lanceolate,  decurrent,  rugose. 
Naturalized.  2— 4  f . 

2—1.    SYRINGA.    48.  37. 

wdga'ris  (lilac,  b-p.  w.  M.  > ),  leaves  cordate ;  flowers  in  a  thyrse. 
per"sica  (persian  lilac,  b.  M.  »,  leaves  lanceolate,  entire  and  pinna tifid. 


TAGETES,  TRIFOLIUM.  411 

17—2.    TAGETES.    49.  55. 

Exotic. 

erec"ta  (african  marygold.  y.  Ju.  ©),  leaves  pinnate;  leafeta  lanceolate, 
cilitate  serrate;  peduncles  1  flowered,  incrassate,  sub-inflated;  calyx 
angled. 

17—2.    TANACETUM.    49.  55. 

Exotic. 

vulffa're  (tansey.  y.  Ju.  4),  leaves  doubly  pinnate,  gash-serrate.  Naturalized. 
Var.  crispum  (double  tansey),  leaves  crisped  and  dense. 

13—1.    TEUCRIUM.    42.  89. 

canaden"se  (wood  sage,  germander.  O.r.  Ju.  4),  pubescent;  leaves  lance  ovate, 
serrate,  petioled ;  stem  erect;  spikes  whorled,  crowded;  bracts  longer  than 
the  calyx.  Var.  virginicum,  upper  leaves  sub-sessile  ;  bracts  about  the  length 
of  the  calyx.  1— 3  f.  S. 

12—13.     THALICTRUM.    26.  61. 

dio'icum  (meadow  rue.  O.  w-r.  M.  4),  flowers  dioecious ;  filaments  filiform  ; 
leaves  about  3  ternate  ;  leafets  roundish,  cordate,  obtusely  lobed,  glabrous  ; 
peduncles  axillary,  shorter  than  the  leaves.     1 — 2  f.  S. 
12—1.    THEA.    54.  71. 

Exotic, 
bohe'a  (bohea  tea  M.  > ),  flowers  6  petalled;  leaves  oblong  oval,  rugose.    From 

China  and  Japan. 
vir"idis*  (green  tea.  ^ ),  flowers  9  petalled ;  leaves  very  long  oval. 

14— J.    THLASPI.     39.  63. 

bursa-pasto'ris  (shepherd's  purse.  O.  w.  M.  ©),  hirsute;  silicles  deltoid  obcor- 
date ;  radical  leaves  pinnatifid.  ,S. 

13—1.    THYMUS.    42.  39. 

Exotic. 

vulga'ns  (thyme,  b-p.  J.  4,  > ),  erect ;  leaves  ovate  and  linear,  revolute ;  flow- 
ers in  a  whorled  spike. 

12—1.    TILIA.    37.  79. 

gla'bra  (bass  wood,  lime  tree.  O.  y-w.  Ju.  ^ ),  leaves  round  cordate,  abruptly 
acuminate,  sharply  serrate,  sub-coriaceous,  glabrous  ;  petals  truncate  at  the 
apex,  crenate ;  style  about  equalling  the  petals  ;  nut  ovate.  Large  tree,  wood 
soft  and  white.  Leaves  often  truncate  at  the  base.  S. 

6—1.    TRADESCANTIA.     6.  13. 

virgin"ica  (spider  wort.  b-p.  M.  4),  erect,  branching ;  leaves  lanceolate,  elon- 
gated, glabrous  ;  flowers  sessile  ;  umbel  compact,  pubescent.  Cultivated. 
1— 2f. 

17— i.    TRAGOPOGON.    49.  53.. 

Exotic. 

porrifo'lium  (vegetable  oyster,  goat  beard,  salsify,  p.  Ju.  $ ),  calyx  longer  than 
the  rays  of  the  corolla ;  the  corollets  very  narrow,  truncate  ;  peduncles  in- 
crassate. 

13—1.    TRICHOSTEMA.    42.  39. 

dichot"oma  (blue  curls,  b.  Au.  ©),  leaves  lance  ovate ;  branches  flower  bearing, 
2  forked  ;  stamens  very  long,  blue,  curved.  Var.  linearis,  somewhat  pubes- 
cent ;  leaves  linear.  6 — 12  i.  S. 

7—1.  TRIENTALIS.    SO.  34.  , 

america'na  (chick  wintergreen.  O.  w.  Ju.  4),  leaves  lanceolate,  serrulate,  acu- 
minate ;  petals  acuminate.  3 — 6  i. 

16—10.    TRIFOLIUM.     32.  93. 

re'pens  (white  clover.  O.  w.  M.  4),  creeping ;  leafets  ovate  oblong,  emarginate, 
serrulate  ;  flowers  inumbelled  heads  ;  teeth  of  the  calyx  sub-equal ;  legume* 
4  seeded.  S. 

praten"se  (red  clover.  O.  r.  M.  4),  ascending,  smoothish,  leafet  ovate,  sub-en- 
tire ;  stipules  awned  ;  spikes  dense-ovate  ;  lower  tooth  of  the  calyx  shorter 
than  the  tube  of  the  corolla,  and  longer  than  the  other  teeth.  2—3  f.  S. 

arven"se  (rabbit-foot.  O.  w.  J.  ©),  heads  very  hairy,  oblong  cylindrical ;  teeth 

*  It  is  asserted  by  some,  that  this  is  only  a  variety  of  the  bohea. 


41'2  TRILLIUM,  USNEA. 

of  the  calyx  setaceous,  longer  than  the  corolla ;  leafets  viltoee,  narrow  obo- 
vate ;  banner  deciduous.    6— 12  i.  S. 

6—3.    TRILLIUM.     11.  12. 

pen"dulum  (noddding  wake  robin,  w.  M.  4),  peduncles  erect,  with  the  flower 
a  little  nodding  ;  petals  ovate,  shortly  acuminate,  spreading,  flat,  longer  than 
the  calyx;  leaves  rhomboid  acuminate,  sessile. 

crec"tum  (false  wake  robin.  O.  p.  w-y.  31.  4),  peduncles  erect  or  crectish,  with 
the  flowers  a  little  nodding;  petals  ovate,  acuminate,  spreading;  equalling 
the  calyx ;  leaves  rhomboid,  acuminate,  sessile  Var.  atropurpttreum,  petals 
large,  dark  purple.  Var.  album,  petals  smaller,  white  ;  germ  red.  Var.  fla- 
rum,  petals  yellow;  both  petals  and  calyx  leaves  longer  and  narrower.  12- 
to  18  inches  high-  Leaves  often  3  to  4  inches  broad.  Peduncles  about  3 
inches  long.  9 — 16  i.  S. 

3—2.    TRITICUM.    4.  10. 
Exotic. 

hyber"num  (winter  wheat  J.  « ),  calyx  glume  4  flowered,  tumid,  even,  imbri- 
cate, abrupt,  with  a  short  compressed  point ;  stipule  jagged  ;  corollas  of  the 
upper  florets  somewhat  bearded.  -There  are  several  varieties  of  this  species 
which  are  introduced  by  culture. 

8—1.    TROP^OLUM.    23.  73. 

Exotic. 

ma'jus  (nasturtion,  indian  cress,  y.  &  r.  Ju.  ©  &  4),  leaves  peltate,  sub-repand ; 
petals  obtuse,  some  of  them  fringed. 

6—1.    TULIPA.    10.  14. 

Exotic. 
waWofcn*  (sweet  tulip.  M.  4),  small  stem  1  flowered,  pubescent ;  flower  erect; 

petals  obtuse,  glabrous ;  leaves  lance-ovate. 

gesneria'na  (common  tulip.  M.  4),  stem  1  flowered,  glabrous  :  flower  various 
coloured,  erect ;  petals  obtuse,  glabrous  ;  leaves  lance  ovate. 

17—2.    TUSSILAGO.    49.    55., 

far"fara  (colt's  foot:  y.  Ap.  4),  scape  single  flowered,  scaly ;  leaves  cordate, 
angular,  toothed  downy  beneath.  The  flower  appears  long  before  the  leaves. 

19—3.  TYPHA!  3.  a 

latifo'lia  (cat  tail,  reed  mace.  O.  Ju.  4),  leaves  linear,  flat,  slightly  convex  be- 
neath ;  staminate  and  pistillate  nmrnts  close  together.    Wet.  4—6  £  S. 
5—2.    ULMUS.    53.   99. 

america'na  (elm,  white  elm.  O.  g-p.  Ap.  > ),  branches  smooth ;  leaves  oblique 
at  the  base,  having  acuminate  serratures  a  little  hooking ;  flowers  pedicelled  ; 
fruit  fringed  with  dense  down.  Var.  pendula,  has  hanging  branches  and 
smoothish  leaves.  40— 70  f.  5. 

21—4.    ULVA.    57.  2. 

lin"za,  frond  lance  linear ;  margin  undulate  crisped.  About  an  inch  broad,  ta- 
pering td  the  base,  green.  Sea  shore. 

5—2.    URASPERMUM.    45.  60. 

clayto'ni  (sweet  cicely.  O.  J.  4),  leaves  compound, hairy  ;  leafets  gash  toothed  ; 

umbels  axillary  and  terminal,  about  5  rayed ;  style  as  long  as  the  villose 

germ,  filiform,  deflected.  2  f. 

21—6.    UREDO.    58.  1. 
linea'ris  (yellow  grain  rust.  J.  ©),  linear,  very  long,  stained  yellow,  at  length 

but  obscurely  coloured.     On  the  culms  and  leaves  of  barley,  oats,  rye, 

wheat,  &c. 

19_4.    URTICA,    53.   99. 
dio'ica  (common  nettle.  O  J.  4),  leaves  opposite,  cordate,  lance  ovate,  coarsely 

se»rate ;  flowers  dioecious  ;  spikes  panicled,  glomerate,  in  pairs,  longer  than 

the  petioles.    2—3  f.  5. 

21—5.     USNEA.     57.  2. 

plica'ta,  frond  pendulous,  smooth,  pale ;  branches  lax,  very  branching,  sub- 
fibrous  ;  the  extreme  ones  capillary  ;  receptacles  flat,  broad,  ciliate ;  the 
cilise  very  slender  and  long.  On  trunks  and  branches  of  trees ;  most  com.- 


UVULARIA,  VICIA.  413 

moti  on  dry  dead  limbs  of  evergreens,  from  which  it  often  hangs  in  long 
green  locks.  * 

6—!.    UVULARIA,     11.  14. 

perfolia'ta  (bell  wort.  O.  y.  M.  4),  leaves  perfoliate,  oval  obtuse  (lance  linear  or 
oval  oblong  in  the  young  state) ;  corolla  bell  liliaceous,  scabrous  or  granular 
within  ;  anthers  cuspidate.  8— 12i. 

sessilifo'lia  (O.  y.  M.  4),  stem  smooth ;  leaves  sessile,  oval  lanceolate,  glaucous 
beneath ;  petals  flat,  smooth  within  ;  capsules  stiped.     6 — 12  i.  S. 
10— 1.    VACCINIUM.     18.   51. 

resino'sum  (black  whortleberry.  O.  p.  M  > ),  leaves  slender,  petioled,  oblong 
oval,  mostly  obtuse,  entire,  bedewed  with  resinous  specks  beneath  ;  racemes 
lateral,  1  sided :  pedicels  short,  somewhat  bracted :  corolla  ovate  conic,  5 
cornered.  Berries  black.  One  variety  has  a  yellowish  green,  and  another 
has  a  reddish  yellow  corolla.  1 — 4  f.  S. 

6—3.    VERATRUM.     10.  13. 

vir"ide  (indian  poke,  white  hellebore.  O.  J.  y.  4),  racemes  paniculate ;  bracts  of 
the  branches  oblong  lanceolate,  partial  ones  longer  than  the  sub-pubescent 
peduncles  :  leaves  broad  ovate,  plaited.  3 — 4  f.  S. 

5—1.    VERBASCUM.    28.   41. 

thap"sus  (mullein.  O.  y.  J.  $ ),  leaves  decurrent,  downy  both  sides  :  stem  gene- 
rally simple,  though  sometimes  branched  above  :  flowers  in  cylindric-spike. 
3— 6f.  S. 

Uatta'ria  (moth  mullein,  sleek  mullein,  w-y.  J.  ^ ),  leaves  glabrous,  tooth  ser- 
rate :  lower  ones  oblong  obovate :  upper  ones  heart  ovate,  clasping :  pedicels 
1  flowered,  in  a  terminal  panicle  raceme.     Var.  alba,  leaves  toothed :  flowers 
white.     Var.  lutea,  leaves  doubly  serrate  :  flowers  yellow.     2—3  f.  S. 
13—1.    VERBENA.    42.  39. 

liasta'ta  (vervain,  simpler's  joy.  O.  p-w.  Ju.  4),  erect,  tall:  leaves  lanceolate, 
acuminate,  gash-serrate:  lower  ones  sometimes  gash  hastate:  spikes  linear, 
panicled,  sub-imbricate.  Var.  pi.nnatiftdat  has  the  leaves  gash  pinnatifid, 
coarsely  toothed.  Var.  oblongifolia,  leaves  lance  oblong,  deeply  serrate, 
acute :  spikes  filiform,  panicled.  2 — 5  f.  S. 

urtieifo'lia  (nettle  leaf  vervain.  O.  w.  Ju.  4),  erect,  subpubescent ;  leaves  oval, 

;  acute,  serrate,  petioled :  spikes  filiform,  loose,  axillary,  terminal  :  flowers  te- 
trandrous.  2— 3f.  S. 

2—1.    VERONICA.    43.  35. 

ojficina'lis  (speedwell,  b.  M.  4),  spikes  lateral,  peduncled  .  leaves  opposite,  ob- 
ovate, hairy  :  stem  procumbent,  rough  haired.  9 — 12  i.  5. 

angal"lis  (brook  pimpernel.  O.  b.  J.  4),  racemes  opposite,  long,  loose  :  leaves 
lanceolate,  serrate ;  stem  erect.  12 — 18  i.  S. 

beccabun"gla  (brook  lime.  b.  J.  4),  racemes  opposite :  leaves  oval,  obtuse,  sub- 
serrate,  glabrous  :  stem  procumbent,  rooting  at  the  base.  Probably  a  variety 
of  the  last.  9—18  i.  S. 

5—3.    VIBURNUM.    43.    58. 

pyrifo'lium  (w.  J.  ^ ),  smooth  :  leaves  ovate  oblong,  acute,  crenate  serrate :  pe- 
tiole naked  :  cymes  sub-pedunculate :  fruit  oblong  ovate.  5 — 10  f. 

lenta'go  (sheep  berry.  O.  w.  J.  > ),  glabrous :  leaves  broad  ovate,  acuminate, 
hook  serrate  :  petioles  margined,  undulate :  cymes  sessile.  The  branches 
when  full  grown  often  form  a  fastigiate  top.  Berries  black,  oval,  and  plea- 
sant tasted  :  somewhat  mucilaginous.  8—15  f.  S. 

acerifo'lium  (maple  guelder  rose,  dockmackie.  O.  w.  J.  > ),  leaves  heart  ovate 
or  3  lobed,  acuminate,  sharp  serrate,  pubescent  beneath  :  cymes  long  pedun- 
cled.   Stem  very  flexible :  leaves  broad  and  sub-membranaceous.  4-6  £  £. 
Leaves  applied  to  inflamed  tumours  by  the  Indians. 
Exotic. 

op"ulus  (guelder  rose,  snow-ball,  w.  J.  ^ ),  leaves  3  lobed,  sharp  toothed  ;  pe- 
tioles glandular,  smooth  ;  flowers  incompact  cymes,  surrounded  with  radia- 
ting florets.  Var.  roseum,  has  the  whole  cyme  made  up  of  radiating  florets. 

ti'nus  (laurestine.  r-w.  ^  ),  leaves  ovate,  entire,  with  tufts  of  hair  in  the  axils  of 
the  veins  beneath  :  flowers  in  smooth  cymes. 

16—10.    VICIA.    32.  93. 
Exotic. 

fa'ba  (garden  bean,  Windsor  bean.  w.  &  black.  J.  ©),  stem  many  flowered, 


414  YINCA,  VIOLA. 

erect,  strong  ;  legumes  ascending,  tumid,  coriaceous  ;  leafets  oval,  acuteren- 
tire  ;  stipules  sagittate,  toothed  at  the  ba.se.     From  Persia. 
5—1.    VINCA.    30.  47. 

Exotic. 

mi'nor  (periwinkle,  b.  Ap.  >),  stem  procumbent ;  leaves  lance  oval,  smooth  at 
the  edges  ;  flowers  peduncled  ;  teeth  of  the  calyx  lanceolate. 

5—1.    VIOLA.    29.  80. 
1.  Stemless,  or  with  a  subterranean  stem. 

(Leaves  more  or  less  reniform,  always  cordate,  younger  cucullatc  :   proper 
colour  of  the  corolla  violet.) 

cvcullu'ta  (O.  p.  b.  M.  4),  glabrous ;  leaves  cordate,  somewhat  acuminate,  cre- 
nate  dentate  ;  autumnal  ones  largest,  very  exactly  reniform ;  peduncle  some- 
what 4  sided,  longer  than  the  leaves ;  divisions  of  the  calyx  subulate,  acumi- 
nate, emarginaic  behind  or  very  entire  :  petals  (as  in  many  American  species) 
oblique,  veiny,  very  entire,  white  at  the  base,  upper  one  generally  naked, 
glabrous,  lateral  ones  bearded,  and  with  the  upper  one  marked  with  a  few 
blue  lines.  Var.  jxipiiionarea,  petioles  and  peduncles  longer  ;  leaves  sub- 
lance  ovate ;  beards  of  the  lateral  petals  often  yellow.  Var.  tetragona,  pe- 
duncle strong,  exactly  4  sided  ;  petals  azure  colour,  veinless.  Var.  villosa, 
leaves,  petals  and  peduncles  villose.  4 — 8  i.  S. 

palmu'ta  (O.  p-b.  M.  4),  mostly  villose ;  leaves  heart  reniform,  palmate,  5 — 7 
lobed  ;  lobes  polymorphous,  often  narrow,  and  gashed,  middle  one  always 
larger;  sometimes  villose  both  sides,  sometimes  only  beneath,  often  glabrous, 
all  of  them  very  often  purple  beneath ;  the  first  spring  ones  are  ovate,  entire  ; 
petioles  sub-emargiuate  ;  peduncle  somewhat  4  sided,  longer  than  the  leaves  ; 
divisions  of  the  calyx  lance  ovate,  ciliate,  very  entire  behind  ;  petals  all 
very  entire,  veiny,  and  white  at  the  base,  upper  ones  narrower,  smaller, 
aometimes  villose  at  the  base,  yet  oflen  naked,  glabrous  ;  lateral  ones  densely 
bearded,  and  with  the  upper  one,  marked  with  a  few  blue  lines.  One  variety 
has  white  flowers.  3—6  i.  S. 

(Leaves  oblong  or  ovate,  never  reniform :  younger  ones  cucullate.) 

sagitta'ta  (E.  b-p.  Ap.  4),  glabrous  ;  leaves  ciliate,  oblong,  not  acute,  sagittate 
cordate,  dentate,  gashed  at  the  base  (or  furnished  with  elongated  divaricate 
teeth);  peduncle  somewhat  4  sidt-d,  longer  t  him  the  leaves  ;  divisions  of  the 
calyx  lanceolate,  acuminate,  emarginate  behind  ;  petals  all  very  entire,  veiny, 
white  at  the  base  ;  upper  one  generally  naked,  glabrous ;  lateral  ones  densely 
bearded,  and  with  the  upper  one  marked  with  a  few  blue  lines  ;  spur  elon- 
gated behind.  A  variety  has  the  leaves  more  or  less  villose.  Dry. 

(Leaves  ovate  or  lanceolate  :  corolla  white,  with  lha  lateral  petals  narrower.) 

ama.'na  (E.  w.  Ap.  4),  glabrous  :  leaves  ovate  sub-acuminate,  crenate,  some- 
times sub- villose  above  .  petioles  long,  spotted  with  red,  peduncle  somewhat 
4  sided,  equalling  or  exceeding  the  length  of  the  leaves  spotted  :  divisions 
of  the  calyx  lanceolate;  petals  all  very  entire,  green  at  the  base  :  lateral  one* 
sometimes  with  the  base  pubescent,  and  with  the  upper  one  marked  with  a 
few  blue  lines.  Moist  woods.  Flowers  odorous. 
(Stemless.) 

rotundifo'lia  (O.  M.  y.  4),  glabrous  ;  leaves  thickish,  appressed  to  the  earth, 
broad  ovate  or  orbicular,  cordate,  crenate  ;  nerves  pubescent  beneath ;  sinus 
closed  ;  peduncle  somewhat  4  sided,  as  long  as  the  leaves  ;  divisions  of  the 
calyx  oblong,  obtuse  ;  petals  sometimes  emarginate ;  upper  ones  small ;  lateral 
ones  somewhat  bearded,  and  with  the  upper  one,  marked  with  a  few  yellow- 
ish brown  lines;  spur  very  short.  Woods.  1 — 3  i. 

peda'ta  (O.  M.  p-b.  4),  glabrous  ;  leaves  sometimes  ciliate,  variously  divided, 
very  often  pedately  9  parted  ;  divisions  linear,  and  obtusely  lanceolate,  gene- 
rally 3  lobed  at  the  apex,  often  simply  lanceolate,  with  the  apex,  5— 7  lobed, 
peduncle  somewhat  4  sided  ;  divisions  of  the  calyx  lanceolate,  acute  ciliate, 
emarginate  behind  ;  petals  all  white  at  the  base,  veinless,  very  entire,  very 
glabrous,  nakod  ;  upper  one  truncate,  and  marked  with  a  few  very  blue 
fines,  sometimes  obsolete.  Var.  velutina,  has  the  two  lower  petals  of  a  very 
deep  violet  colour,  and  appears  like  velvet.  Var.  alba,  has  white  flowers. 
Dry.  3-4  i.  5. 


VISCUM,  ZEA.  I      415 

2.  Caulescent. 

pubes"cens  (O.  y.  4),  villose  pubescent;  stem  simple,  erect,,  terete,  leafless 
below ;  leaves  broad  ovate,  cordate,  dentate ;  petioles  short ;  stipules  large, 
ovate,  dentate  ;  peduncles  4  sided,  shorter  than  the  leaves ;  bracts  subulate, 
minute  ;  divisions  of  the  calyx  lanceolate  ;  petals  all  very  entire,  veinless  ; 
upper  one  naked,  glabrous  ;  lateral  ones  bearded,  and  with  the  upper  one, 
marked  with  a  few  blue  lines  ;  lower  ones  often  becoming  reddish  outside  ; 
spur  short,  gibbose,  acutish  ;  stigma  pubescent,  scarcely  beaked.  Varies  in 
pubescence ;  leaves  are  even  found  glabrous  ;  the  capsules  are  also  glabrous 
or  woolly.  4 — 12  i.  rarely — 4  f. 

Exotic, 
tricolour  (garden  violet,  heart's  ease,  pansy,  p.  y.  b-p.  M.  4),  stem  angular, 

diffuse,  divided  ;  leaves  oblong,  deeply  crenate  ;  stipules  lyrate  pinnatifid. 
odora'ta  (sweet  violet,  b.  M.  4),  stemless  ;   scions  creeping ;  leaves  cordate, 
crenate,  smoothish  ;    calyx  obtuse  ;    two  lateral  petals  with  a  bearded  or 
hairy  line. 

20—4.    VISCUM.    43.  58. 

verticitta'tum  (misletoe.  g-w.  J.  ^ ),  branches  opposite  and  whorled  ;  learea 
wedge  obovate,  3  nerved  ;  spikes  axillary,  a  little  shorter  than  the  leaves. 
Berries  yellowish  white.  On  the  branches  of  old  trees:  This  is  the  golden 
bough  of  Virgil,  and  the  sacred  plant  of  the  Druids.  1—2  f.  S. 

5—1.    VITIS.    46.   72. 

Remark.    All  the  North  American  species   of  grape  are  polygamous  or 
dioecious. 

labrus"ca  (plum  grape,  w-g.  J.  ^ ),  leaves  broad  cordate,  lobe  angled,  white 
downy  beneath  ;  fertile  racemes  small  ;  berries  (blue,  flesh  colour  and 
green)  large.  Var.  labruscoides  (fox  grape),  has  smaller  fruit,  approaching  a 
tart  taste. 

rulpi'na  (frost  grape.  O.  w-g.  J.  ^ ),  leaves  cordate,  acuminate,  gash  toothed, 
glabrous  both  sides ;  racemes  lax,  many  flowered  ;  berries  small.  Leaves 
very  variable  ;  but  the  uppermost  mature  leaves  will  agree  with  the 
description. 

5—1.    XYLOSTEUM.  ,  48.  58. 

cilia'tum  (fly  honey  suckle,  twin  berry.  O.w-y.  M.  ^ ),  berries  distinct ;  leaves 
ovate  and  sub-cordate,  margin  ciliate,  in  the  young  state  villose  beneath  ; 
corolla  a  little  gibbous  or  calcarate  at  the  base  ;  tube  ventricose  above  ; 
divisions  short,  acute  ;  style  exsert.  3 — 4  f. 

3—1.    XYRIS.    6.  13. 

cardinia'na  (yellow  eyed  grass.  E.  y.  Au.  4),  leaves  linear,  grass  like  ;  stem 
or  scape  two  edged  ;  head  ovate  acute ;  scales  obtuse.  9 — 18  i.  S. 

5—13.     ZANTHORHIZA.    26.  61. 

apiifo'lia  (parsley,  yellowropt.  p.  Ap.  > ),  stem  simple  :  leaves  3  ternate  ; 
petioles  dilated  and  clasping  at  the  base  ;  racemes  compound,  below  the 
leaves.  1—3  f. 

21—5.    ZANTHOXYLUM.    46.  94. 

fraxin"eum  (prickly  ash,  tooth-ache  bush.  O.  g-w.  M.  > ),  prickly  ;  leaves 
pinnate  ;  leafets  lance-oval,  sub-entire,  sessile,  equal  at  the  base  ;  umbels 
axillary.  8— 12  f.  S. 

19—3.     ZEA.    4.  10. 

Southern, 
mays  (Indian  corn.  y-g.  Ju.  ©),  leaves  lance  linear,  entire,  keeled. 


VOCABULARY, 

OR 

EXPLANATION  OF  BOTANICAL  TERMS.* 


A. 


A,  in  composition,  signifies  privation,  o 
destitute  of;  as,  acaulis,  referring  to 
plant  without  a  caulis  or  stem. 

Abortive  flower.    Falling  off  without  pro- 
ducing any  fruit. 

stamens,  not  furnished  with  an 

Defective  in  some  essen 
Not    becoming     perfec 


through  want  of  the  fertilizing  innuenc 
of  the  pollen. 

Abrupt'  leaf.  A  pinnate  leaf  with  an  odd 
or  terminal  leafet. 

Acal'ycea.  (From  o,  signifying  without 
and  calyx,  a  flower  cup.)  A  class  in  an 
ancient  method  of  arrangement,  consist 
in»  of  plants  without  a  calyx. 

.icnu  Irx.  (From  a,  wanting,  and  caulis,  a 
stem.)  The  20th  class  in  Magnolius' me- 
thod, including  plants  without  stems. 

Accra' st  leaf.  Linear  and  permanent,  as 
in  the  pine. 

Acic'ular.    Needle  shaped. 

A'cinus.  A  small  berry  which,  with  many 
others,  composes  the  fruit  of  the  mulber- 
ry and  raspberry  ;  the  plural  is  acini. 

Acotyled'onous.  (From  a,  without,  and  co- 
tyledon, a  seed  lobe.)  Plants  destitute  ot 
seed  lobes,  and  which  consequently  [tut 
Ibrth  no  seminal  or  seed  leaves,  as  mosses 
and  ferns. 

Acu'leu*.  (From  ociw,  a  needle.)  A 
prickle,  or  sharp  point ;  common  to  thi 
rose  and  raspberry.  It  dirters  from  the 
thorn  in  being  a  prolongation  of  the 
outer  bark  of  the  plant,  and  unconnected 
with  the  wood.  Prickles  have  been 
compared  to  the  nails  and  claws  of  ani- 


iJld'versifo'lia.  (From  advernu,  opposite, 
and  folium,  a  leaf.)  Plants  whose  leave* 
stand  opposite  to  each  other,  on  the  same 
stem  or  branch.  Name  of  the  5th  claw 
in  Sauvage's  Methodus  foliorum  (me- 
thod of  leaves),  as  exemplified  in  the  la- 
biate flowers. 

JEstiva'les.  (From  astaa,  summer.) 
Plants  which  blossom  in  summer.  The 
second  division  of  Da  Pas'  method,  with 
reference  to  the  four  seasons  of  the  year, 
cnii-isting  of  herbs  which  blossom  in 
summer. 

A' fora.  (From  a,  without,  and  fores,  a 
door.)  Having  no  doors  or  valves.  The 
name  of  a  class  in  CameriuB'  method, 
consisting  of  plants  whose  pericarp  or 
seed  vessel  is  not  furnished  with  internal 
valves. 

ga'moHs.  (From  a,  without,  and  games, 
marriage.)  A  term  derived  from  the  in- 
delicate notions  of  the  botanists  of  the 
last  century,  respecting  the  sexual  di* 
tinriions  of  plants;  and  which,  what 
ever  analogies  may  actually  exist  be- 
i  \\ren  the  variable  and  animal  king- 
doms, should  as  far  as  possible  be  exclu- 
ded from  the  science.  Were  it  to  be 
otherwise,  the  study  of  botany  ought  to 
he  limited  to  the  medical  profession*  Of 
all  studies,  that  of  botany  should  be  un- 
accompanied by  aught  that  might  pain 
or  disgust  a  delicate  mind.  Plants  with- 
out any  visible  stamens  or  pistils  are  by 
French  botanists  called  agamous. 


Acu'minate.  Abruptly  sharp  pointed,  hav- 
ing the  point  curved  towards  one  edge  of 
the  leaf,  resembling  an  awl. 

Acute.  More  gradually  sharp  pointed  than 
acuminate.  An  obtuse  angle  or  any 
other  mathematical  angle,  is  acute  in  bo- 
tanical language. 

Adel'phous*  (From  the  Greek  adelphos,  a 
brother  or  an  equal.)  Applied  to  plants 
whose  stamens  are  united  by  their  lila- 
ments,  whether  in  one  or  two  sets. 

Adnate.    Growing  together. 


a'ges  of  plants.     Ephemeral  are  such  as 
spring  up,  blossom  and  ripen  their  seed 
in  a  few  hours  or  days  ;  annual  live  a 
few  months  or  one  summer. 
biennial,  spring  up  one  summer  and  di« 
the  following. 
]>i'rtnnial,\ive  an  indefinite  period. 

Ig'gregate.    (From  aggrtgare,  to  assem- 
ble.)     Many  springing  from  the  samo 
point :  this  term  was  at  first  applied  to 
compound  flowers,  but  there  is  at  present 
a  sevenfold  division  of  aggregate  flow- 
ers ;  the  aggregate,  properly  so  called  ; 
compound, 
umbellate, 
cymose, 
amentaceous, 
glumose, 
upadiceou*. 


*  The  author,  in  preparing  the  following  vocabulary,  coaaultsd  -¥»/«,  Thorn**, 
Xrrbti  and  Eaton. 


VOCABULARY. 


417 


Aggregate  flower  is  erected  on  peduncles  Ang 
or  footstalks,  which  all  have  one  com- 
mon receptacle  on  the  stem  ;  they  some- 
times have  one  common  calyx,  and  are 
sometimes  separately  furnished  with  a 
calyx. 

Ai'grctte.    See  egret. 

A'la.  A  Latin  word  signifying  a  wing. 
It  is  sometimes  used  to  express  the  angle 
formed  by  the  stem  with  the  branch  or 
leaf.  Linnaeus  and  some  others  use  the 
term  a/a,  as  the  name  of  a  membrane, 
affixed  to  some  species  of  seeds  which 
serves  as  a  wing  to  raise  them  into  the 
air,  and  thus  promotes  their  dispersion. 

A' la.  The  two  lateral  or  side  petals  of  a 
papilionaceous  flower. 

Albu'men.  Tire  farinaceous,  fleshy  or 
horny  substance,  which  constitutes  the 
chief  bulk  of  monocotyledonous  seeds ; 
as  wheat,  rye,  &c. 

Albur'num.  (From  albus,  white.)  The 
soft  white  substance,  which  in  trees  is 
found  between  the  liber,  or  inner  bark 
and  the  wood,  and  becoming  solid,  in 
progress  of  time  is  converted  into  wood. 
From  its  colour  and  comparative  soft- 
ness, it  has  beeri  styled  the  fat  of  trees. 
It  is  called  the  sap  wood,  and  is  formed 
by  a  deposite  of  the  cambium  or  descend- 
ing sap  ;  in  one  year  it  becomes  wood  ; 
and  a  new  layer  of  alburnum  is  again 
formed  by  the  descent  of  the  cambium. 

Al ' gas.  Flags  ;  these  by  Linnaeus  com- 
prise tUe  plants  of  tUe  order  Hepatioa> 
and  Lichenes. 

Alpine.  Growing  naturally  on  high  moun- 
tains. 

Alter' nate.    Branches,  leaves,  flowers,  &c. 

,  are  alternate,  when  beginning  at  differ- 
ent distances  on  the  stem  ;  opposite,  is 
whea  they  commence  at  the  same  <" 
tances,  and  base  stands  against  base. 

Alter 'natcly  pinnate  leaf;  When  the  leafets 
are  arranged  alternately  on  each  side  of 
the  common  footstalk  or  petiole. 

Alve'olate.  Having  cells  which  resemble 
a  honey-comb. 

Am'bitus.  The  outer  rim  of  a  frond,  re- 
ceptacle, &c. 

A'ment.  Flowers  collected  on  chaffy 
scales,  and  arranged  on  a  thread  or  slen- 
der stalk  ;  these  scales  mixed  with  the 
flowers  resemble  the  chart"  in  an  ear  of 
corn ;  in  the  willow  and  poplar,  an 
ainent  supports  both  staminate  and  pis- 
tillate flowers  on  distinct  roots.  Flowers 
supported  by  an  ament  are  generally  des- 
titute of  a  corolla. 

Amplexicau'lis.    Clasping  the  base  of  the  Ap'te 
stems. 

Analysis.  To  analyze  a  plant  botanically, 
is  to  ascertain  its  name,  by  observing  its 
organs,  and  comparing  them  with  scien 
tine  descriptions  of  plants. 

Anrip'ctal.  Having  two  sharp  edges  like 
a  sword. 

An'dria.    Signifies  stamen. 

Androg'ymous  plants.  Such  as  bear  sta- 
minate and  pistillate  flowers  on  the  same 
root ;  as  the  oak  and  Indian  corn  ;  such 
plants  belong  to  the  class  Monoecia. 

Angiocar'pus.  Fungi  bearing  seeds  inter- 
nally. 


^iosper'mal.  (From  angio,  a  vessel, 
and  sperma,  seed.)  Plants  whose  seeds 
are  inclosed  or  covered. 

Angular.  Forming  angles ;  when  the 
stems,  calyxes,  capsules,  &c.  have  ridges 
running  lengthwise. 

Angustifo'lius.    Nafrrow-leaved. 

Annual.  A  plant  which  lives  but  one 
year.  The  herbage  is  often  annual, 
while  the  root  is  perennial ;  in  this  case 
the  plant  is  said  to  be  perennial. 

Annula'ted.  Having  a  ring  round  the  cap- 
sules ;  as  in  ferns ;  or  in  mushrooms 
having  a  ringed  stipe. 

An'nulus.    A  ring. 

Anom'alous.  (From  a,  without,  and  no- 
mos,  law.)  Irregular,  or  whatever  forms 
an  exception  to  a  general  rule.  The 
Hth  class  in  Tournofort's  method  is  call- 
ed anomalce,  including  plants  whose  co- 
rollas are  composed  of  irregular  and  dis- 
similar parts  ;  as  the  columbine,  monk's 
hood,  violet,  larkspur,  &c. 

Anther.  (From  anthos,  a  flower,  so  called 
as  indicating  its  importance.)  That  part 
of  the  stamen  which  contains  the  pollen  ; 
it  is  of  various  forms,  as  linear,  awl- 
shaped,  heart-shaped,  round,  &c. ;  it  is 
one  celled,  two  celled,'  &c. ;  the  anther 
of  the  Tritilaria  (crown  imperial)  has 
four  cells. 

Antherid' ium.    A  mass  of  pollen. 

Antherif'erous.  Flowers  bearing  anthers 
without  filaments. 

Anthua.  (From  the  Greek  ant/ios.')  A 
flower  generally  referring  to  the  petals 
only. 

Antiscorbutics.  Substances  which  cure 
eruptions. 

Apet'alous.  (From  a,  without,  and  peta- 
lum,  a  petal.)  Having  no  petals  or  co- 
rollas ;  such  flowers  are  termed  incom- 
plete ;  such  as  are  destitute  of  either  sta- 
mens or  pistils  are  called  imperfect. 

Apet'alce.  A  class  formed  by  some  of  the 
ancient  botanists,  including  plants  desti- 
tute of  corollas. 

A'pex.    The  top  or  summit. 

Aphyl'lous.  (From  a,  without,  and  phyl- 
lon,  a  leaf.)  Destitute  of  leaves. 

Aphyl'lcB  is  the  name  given  by  an  ancient 
botanist  to  a  class  of  plants  without 
leaves,  comprising  -garlic,  rush,  mush- 
rooms, &c. 

Appen'daged.  Having  bracts,  thorns, 
prickles,  &c. 

Appres'sed.    Closely   pressed  ;    as  leaves 
against  the  stem,  &c. 
rox'imate.    Growing  near  each  other. 
terous.    Without  wings. 

Aquat'ic.  (From  aqua,  water.)  Growing 
in,  or  near  water.  Aquatica,  was  an 
ancient  name  for  a  class  including  all 
plants  which  grow  in  water. 

Ar'bor.  A  tree  ;  a  perennial  plant,  which 
rises  to  a  great  height,  having  a  woody 
stein.  Most  trees  spring  from  seeds  hav- 
ing two  cotyledons  ;  they  are  therefore 
called  dicotyledonous  plants.  The  steins 
of  such  plants  are  said  to  be  exogenous, 
that  is,  growing  externally,  new  layers 
of  wood  being  every  year  formed  under 
the  bark,  around  the  outside  of  the  old 
wood.  Palm  trees  are  inonocotyledonous 


418 


VOCABULARY. 


plants  ;  their  stems  are  called  endoffe-\Barb.    A  straight    process,    armed  with 

no*g,    that  is,  growing    internally  and.     teeth  pointing  backwards. 

pressing  upon  the  outer  coats,  which  \)K-\Barba'lun.    Beard'-d. 

come  hard  and  compact.    The  ancient; Bark.    The  covering  of  vegetables,  con 


botanists  divided  plants  into  trees  and 
herbs;  but  tliis  distinction  is  too  vague 
to  form  the  basis  of  classification. 

Arbo'reus.    Like  a  tree. 

Arbiisti'vus.     (From  arbvatum,  a  shrub.) 


.-istinir  of  several  parts ;  as  cuticle,  cellu- 
lar integument,  &.c.  The  bark  consists 
of  as  many  layers  as  the  tree  on  which 
it  grows  has  years:  a  new  layer  being 
formed  from  the  cambium  every  year. 


An  ancient  clam  of  plants  containing     The  newest  layer  of  bark  is  called  liber. 
shrubs,     as    the    myrtle,    mock-orangejfiar'ren.    Producing^no  fruit ;  containing 


(philadelphus},  &c. 
Arch'td.    Curving  above,  vaulted. 


.Ir'cuate.    (From  arcus.  a   bow.)    Bent 

like  a  bow. 

Arena'rius.    Growing  in  sand. 
Argen'teus.    Silver  coloured. 
JlSid.    Dry. 
A'ril  (ariUus).    The  external  coat  or  co-  Bi'dens.    Having  two  teeth. 


stamens  only. 

Beak'ed.  Terminating  by  a  process  shaped 
like  the  beak  of  a  bird. 


lirr'rij.    A  pulpy  pericarp  enclosing  seeds 

without  capsules.    See  Bacca. 
/>'/,  derived  from  bis,  signifying  two. 
Bicor'nis.     Anthers  with  two  horns. 

Bi'dena.    Having  two  teeth. 

vering  of  seeds  which,  drying,  falls  oil  Bien'nial.  Living  two  years,  in  the  second 


spontaneously. 
Jlris'tate.   (From  area,  to  be  dried).  Awn 


of  which  the  flower  and  fruit  id  produ- 
ced ;  as  in  wheat. 


ed,  ending  in  a  bristle.  Bi'fid.    Two  parted. 

Aro'ides.    So  called  from  arum,  and  form-!  Bila'biate.    Corolla  with  two  lips, 
ing  a  natural  family  of  plants.  Kijiin'nate.    Twice  pinnate. 

(irwo).   Offensive  weapons.   Plants  Biter'nate.    Twice  ternate.    The  petiole 


are  said  to  be  armed,  when  they  are  fur- 
nished with  prickles,  thorns,  fee. 

Aromat'ic.    Sweet  scented. 

Aromat'ica.    The  name  of  a  class  of  Di 


supporting  three  termite  leave*. 
Bi'vaive.    Two  valved. 
Blas'teme.    From  the  Greek  blastema,  a 

bud. 

oscorides,    Clusius,  Bauhin,    and  some  Border.    The  brim  or  spreading  part  of  a 
other  botanist*  who  arranged  plants  ac-     corolla. 

cording  to  their  virtues  and   sensibleiBo/'n/*.    A  cluster,  like  grapes, 
qualities.  \Brach' iate.    Branches  opposite,  and  eacli 

S!lf\prd  Tike  an  arrow  head,|     p«ur  at  right  aimles  \\  ith  the  preceding. 
Bract.     Floral  leaf;  a  leaf  near  the  flower 


-fo 
liar 


the  hind  lobes  acute. 


Artie'  ulat'-il.    Jointed  ;  as  in  the  culm  or 

stem  of  the  grasses. 
Arwulina'ceons.     (From  arunJo,  a  reed.) 

Resembling  reeds. 

Growing  in  cultivated  fields. 


Ascending.    Rising  from   the  ground  ob- 

Aspn-ifo'lius.    Rough  leaved. 
Astringents.   Substances  which  condense 

the  fibres. 
Attenuated. 

pertnf. 
Auric' tdate.    Having  appendages  resem-  Bud.    The  residence  of  the  infant  leaf  and 


which  is  different  from  thu  other  leave* 
of  the  plant.  In  the  crown  -imperial  tin: 
bracts  are  at  the  termination  of  the 
tl.iwer  stein  :  tViiin  their  resemblance  to 
a  hair,  they  are  called  coma. 
Branch.  A  division  of  the  main  stem  or 


main  root. 
Branch'let.    Subdivision  of  a  branch,  a 

twig. 

Bre'via.    Short. 
Gradually  diminished  or  ta-  Bnina'les.  (From  brvma,  winter.)  Plants 

which  blossom  in  winter. 


bling  ears.  flower. 

.Iwl-fonn.    Sharp  at  the  point,  and  curved  Bulbs.    Called  roots ;    sometimes    found 


to  one  side. 

Jlwn.    A  short  stiff  bristle. 
Ax'il.    The  angle  between  a  leaf  and  stem 

on  the  upper  side.   • 
Ax'illary.     Growing   out   of  the    axils : 

leaves  nre  snid  to  be  axillary  when  they 

proceed  from  the  angle  formed  by  the 

stem  and  branch. 


15. 


u  ing  on  the  stem;  strictly  speaking 
bulbs  are  buds,  or  the  winter  residence 
of  the  future  plants.  A  bulb  contains  in 
miniature  or  embryo,  a  plant  similar  to 
the  pantnt  plant.  Plants  may  be  renew- 
ed from  bulbs  as  well  as  seeds.  Annual 
plants  do  not  have  bulbs ;  they  are  only 
I-,  i  -'Tved  by  seeds. 
I  Bun' die.  See  fascicle. 


Bac'ca.  A  berry.  It  is  a  pulpy  prrirarp, 
enclosing  seeds  without  capsules.  A 
berry  is  said  to  be  proper,  when  it  is 
formed  of  the  pericarp  or  seed  vessel ; 
improper  or  singular  when  it  is  formed 


C. 


Caducous.  (From  c«rfo,  to  fall.)  Falling 
early  ;  as  the  calyx  of  the  poppy. 

Caes'pitose.  Forming  turfs,  several  roou 
growing  together. 


of  any  other  parts.    In  the  mulberry  and  ICal'amus.    Reed  like. 

rose,  a  large,  fleshy  and  succulent  calyx  Calcareous.    Containing  lime;  applied  to 

becomes  a  berry.    In  the  strawberry,  a  |     shells  of  oysters,  &c. 


berry  is  formed  of  the  common  recepta 
cle  ;  in  the  raspberry  of  a  seed. 
Bearing  berries. 


Ban'ncr.    The  upper  petal  in  a  papiliona- 
ceous dower. 


Calyb'ion.  iFroni  kalubion,  a  little  cabin.) 
A  genus  in  Mirbel's  second  class  of  fruits. 

Cafyc'ulated.    Having  an  additional  calyx. 

Calyp'tra.  The  cap  or  hood  of  pistillate 
mosses,  resembling  &n  extinguisher  set 


VOCABULARY. 


419 


on  a  candle.    Although  called  a  calyx,  it  Cine'reous.    Ash  coloured. 
is  iu  reality  the  corolla  of    the    moss  Cin'gens.    Surrounding,  girding  around. 

Cir'rose.    Bearing  a  tendril.    From  Cir'- 
rus,  a  tendril  or  climber. 


closed. 
Calyx.     From 


the    Greek,  signifying  a 


flower  cup ;  in  most  plants  it  incloses, 
and  supports  the  bottom  of  the  corolla. 
It  is  defined  by  Linmeus  to  be  the  ter- 
mination of  the  outer  bark. 

Cam'bium.  The  descending  sap,  which 
every  year  forms  a  new  layer  of  bark 
and  one  of  wood.  It  descends  between 
the  bark  and  the  wood,  so  that  the  new 
wood  is  formed  externally  and  the  new 
bark  internally. 

Campari  ulate.    Bell-form. 

Campes'tris.  Growing  in  uncultivated 
fields. 

Canes' cent.    White  or  hoary. 

Capillary.    Hair-form. 

Cap'itate.    Growing  in  heads. 

Cap'sule.  A  little  chest ;  that  kind  of  hol- 
low seed  vessel  which  becomes  dry  and 
opens  when  ripe  ;  a  capsule  that  never 
opens  is  called  a  samara. 

Carcer'ular.  (From  career,  prison.)  A 
seed  contained  in  a  covering,  whose 
sides  are  compressed.  One  of  Mirbel's 
genera  of  fruits,  in  the  order  Carceru- 
lares. 

Cari'na.  The  keel  or  lower  folded  petal 
of  a  papilionaceous  flower. 

Car'inatcd.  Keeled,  having  a  sharp  back 
like  the  keel  of  a  vessel. 

Carno'se.    Of  a  fleshy  consistence. 

Carpos.    From  the  Greek  karpos  fruit. 

Caryopjiyl'leous.  Pink-like  corolla,  hav- 
ing five  petals  with  long  claws,  all  regu- 
lar and  set  in  a  tubular  calyx. 

Cat' kin.    See  Ament. 

Can' date.  Having  a  tail ;  as  iu  some 
seeds. 

Cau'dex.   The  main  body  of  a  tree,  or  root. 

Caules'cent.  Having  a  stem  exclusive  of 
the  peduncle  or  scape. 

Can' line.    Growing  on  the  main  stem. 


Clasp' ing.  Surrounding  the  stem  with 
the  base  of  the  leaf. 

Class.  The  highest  division  of. plants  in 
the  system  of  Botany.  Linnaeus  divided 
all  plants  into  24  classes ;  3  of  these  are 
now  rejected,  and  the  plants  which  they 
included  placed  ,  in  the  remaining  21 
classes.  The  ancient  botanists  knew 
neither  methods,  systems,  or  classes ; 
they  described  under  chapters,  or  sec- 
tions, those  plants  which  appeared  to 
them  to  resemble  each  other  in  the  great- 
est number  of  relations. 

Cla'vate.  Club-shaped,  larger  at  the  top 
than  the  bottom. 

Clau'sus.    Closed,  shut  up. 

Claw.  The  narrow  part  by  which  a  petal 
is  inserted. 

Cleft.    Split  or  divided  less  than  halfway. 

Climb'ing.  Ascending  by  means  of  ten- 
drils, as  grapes ;  by  leaf  stalks,  as  the 
Clematis;  by  cauline  radicles  or  little 
fibrous  roots,  as  the  creeping  Ameriean 
ivy. 

Club-shaved.    See  clavate. 


of  all  plants,  called  in  French,  la  tige. 

Cell.  The  hollow  part  of  a  pericarp  or  an- 
ther ;  each  cavity  in  a  pericarp  that  con- 
tains one  or  more  seeds  is  called  a  cell. 
According  to  the  number  of  these  cells 
the  pericarp  is  one-celled,  two-celled, 
three-celled,  &c. 

Cel'lular.  Made  up  of  little  cells  or  cavi- 
tias. 

Ceno'bion.  From  the  Greek,  signifying  a 
community;  one  of  Mirbel's  genera  of 
fruits. 

Ccrion.    A  carcerulate  fruit,  forming  one 
of  Mirbel's  genera  of  fruits. 
' 


Clustered.    See  racemed. 

Cly'peate.  Form  of  a  buckler.  See  pel- 
tate. 

Coad'nate.    United  at  the  base. 

Coat'ed.  With  surrounding  coats  or  layera 

^occin'eous.    Scarlet  coloured. 

Coch'leate.  Coited  spirally,  like  a  snail 
shell. 

Coc'cum.  A  grain  or  seed ;  tricoccous, 
3-seeded,  &c. 

Cwru'leus.    Blue. 

Coleop'tile.  From  koleos,  an  envelope,  and 
ptilon  a  bud. 

Co 'leorrhize.  From  koleos,  an  envelope, 
and  riza,  a  root. 

Colli'nus.    Growing  on  hills. 


Cau'lis.    The  main  herbage-bearing  stem  Coloured.    Different  from    green  ;  in  the 


language  of  botany,  green  is  not  called  a 
colour.  White,  which  in  reality  is  not 
a  colour,  is  so  called  in  botany.  The 
primitive  colours  and  their  intermediate 
shades  and  gradations,  are  by  botanists 
arranged  as  follows : 

( Water-colour,    hyalinns. 

\  White,  albus. 

(  Lead-colour, 


C  BLACK, 
<  Brown, 
f  Pitch-black, 


cinereus. 

niger. 

fuscus. 

ater. 

luteus. 


l  YELLOW, 

<  Straw-colour,   flavus. 

(  Flame-colour,    fulvus. 


CerKa'lis.    Any  grain  from  which  bread  is 

made.     (From  Ceres,  goddess  of  corn.) 
Cer'nuiis.    When  the  top  only  droops. 
Chaffy.'    Made  up  of  short  membranous 

portions  like  chaff. 
Channelled.   Hollowed  out  longitudinally, 

with  a  rounded  groove. 
Cho'rion.    A  clear  limpid  liquor  contained 

in  a  seed  at  the  time  of  flowering.    Af-   .  *  u^™*.,  r^.f,*,  <.„*. 

tcr  the  pollen  is  received,  this  liquor  be-  \  Violet-colour,    ccBruleo-purpureug. 

comes  a  perfect  embryo  of  a  new  plant.  I 
Cie'atricp.    The    mark    or    natural    scar  J  BLUE,  caruleus. 

from  whence  the  leaf  has  fallen.  j  GREEN,  viridis. 

Cil'iate.    Fringed  with  parallel  hairs.  White  is  most  common  iu  roote,  iweet 


RED, 

Flesh-colour, 

Scarlet, 

(  PURPLE, 


rubex. 

incarnatus. 

coccincus. 

purpureus. 


420 


VOCABULARY. 


berries  and  the  petals  of  spring  flowers.]    and  tego,  to  cover.)    The  rind  or  coarse 
Black,  in  roots  and  seeds.     Yellow,  in      outer  hark  of  plants;  the  organization 
anthers,   and  the    petals   of  compound     of  the  outer  and  inner  harks  ditR-rs  chief- 
flowers.    Red  in  the  petals  of  summer     ly  in  the  fineness  of  their  texture, 
flowers  and  acid  fruits.    Blue  and  vio-  Cor'tical.    Belonging  to  the  bark, 
let  colour,  in  the  petals.    Green,  in   the  Coryda'lis.    Helmet  like.  f 

Co'rymb.  Inflorescence,  in  which  the 
tlowi-r  stalks  spring  from  different 
heights  oil  the  common  stem,  forming  a 
flat  top. 


I,    111    I 

leaves  and  calyx 

Columd'la.  That  which  connects  the 
seeds  to  the  inside  of  the  pericarp.  The 
central  pillar  in  a  capsule 


Column.    The  style  of  gynandrous  plants 

used  forcolumella. 
Co' ma.    A  tuft  of  bracts  on  the  top  of  a 

spike  of  flowers. 
Com'mon.    Any   part  is  common,  which 

includes  or  sustains  several  parts  similar 

among  themselves. 
Compound.    Made  up  of  similar  simple 
parts 
flowers.     Such  as  are    in   the 

class  Syngenesia,    having  florets  with 

united  anthers. 
leaf.      When     several   leafets 

grow  on  one  petiole. 
raceme.    When  several  rac 

grow  along  the  side  of  a  peduncle. 


umbel.      Having  the  peduncles  Creeping.    Running  horizontally  ; 


subdivided  into  peduncles  of  lesser  inn 

bels. 

petiole.    A  divided  le.-if  stalk. 

peduncle.      A    divided    tluwer 

stajk. 

Compres'scd.     Flattrned. 
Concave.     Hollowed  on  one  side. 
Conceptac'ulum.    Sin»le  valved  capsule. 


Conchol'ogy.    The  science  which  treat*  of]  Crinitus.    Longhaired. 


shells. 

Cone.  A  scaly  fruit  like  that  of  the  pine 
See  Strobilum. 

Conglomerate.    Crowded  together. 

Con  ic.  With  a  broad  base,  gradually  nar- 
rowing to  the  top  like  a  sugar  loaf. 

Coniferous.     Hearini:  cones. 

Conjugate.     In  paii-. 


Oppos 

IL'  lulu 


ite,  with  the  bases  united 


Connate. 

orgrowiiiL'  into  one,  formtof  the  appeal 
ance  of  one  leaf.  Anthers  are  some- 
times connate. 

Conni'vrnt.  Converging,  the  ends  inclining 
towards  each  other. 

Contiguous.    Uninterrupted. 

Contor'ted.    Twisted. 

Contrac'ted.    Close,  narrow. 

Conner' ging.  Approaching  or  bending  to- 
wards each  other. 

Con'vex.    Swellinu'  out  in  a  roundish  form 

Con'rolute.  Rolb  d  into  a  cyliudric  form 
as  leaves  in  the  hud. 

Cor'culum,  or  Corcle.  The  embryo  or 
miniature  of  the  future  plant,  which  is 
found  in  seeds  often  between  the  cotyle- 
dons. 

Cor' date.  Heart-shaped,  side  lobes  round 
ed. 

Curia' ceous.  Resembling  leather;  thick 
and  parchment-like. 

Cor'nu.    A  horn  or  spur. 

Comic'ulate.    Horn  shaped. 

Corolla,  or  corol.     (A  word  derived  from 


corona,  a  crown.)     Usually  encloses  the  Cyan 


stamens. 


Corona 'tus.    Crowned ;  as  the  thistle  seed 

is  crowned  with  down. 
Cor'tex.    (From  cerium,  leather,  or  hide, 


Costate.    Ribbed. 

nu.  (From  kntulr,  a  cavity.) 
lobes.  The  fleshy  part  of  seeds 
which  in  nn»t  plants  rises  out  of  the 
ground  and  toims  tin-  first  leaves,  called 
seminal  or  seed  li  aves.  Tin  ~e  lol.es  in 
the  greatest  proportion  of  plants,  an 
two  1:1  number ;  they  art-  very  conspic- 
uous in  the  leguminous  seeds  ;  as  beans, 
peas,  &r.  The  COM  ledon.-  are  externally 
convex,  internally  flat,  and  inclose  ;be 
embryo  or  principle  of  life,-  which  it  Is 
their  otljcc  to  protect  and  uoni  i>h. 

Cre'mocarpe.  'From  kn  i/mfi,  to  fiispcnd, 
and  karpos,  fruit.)  A  name  given  by 
.M  libel  to  a  genus  of  fruits. 


aresometiines  creeping,  as  also  roots. 
Cre'nate.      Scolloped,  notches  on  the  nmr- 

>:iii  of  a  leaf  which  do  not  point  towards 

either  the  apex  or  base. 
Cre'nulate.    Finely  crenate. 
Cres 'cent-form.    Resembling  a  half-moon. 
Crest' ed.    Having   an    appearance  like  a 

cock's  comb. 


Crowded.    Clustered  together. 

I  riiirnnl.      See  CoronatUS. 

Cruciform.     (From  mis,  cruets,  a  cross.) 
Four  petals  placed  like  a  cross. 
ii+tu  ceou.t.      Small  crusty   substances 
lvin«r  one  upon  another. 

Cryptoga'mia.  Stamens  and  pistils  con- 
cealed. 

(-'n  l-it.  A  measure  from  the  elbow  to  the 
end  of  the  middle  finger. 

Cucul'latr.  Hooded  or  cowled,  rolled  or 
folded  in,  as  in  the  spatha  of  the  Arum 
or  wild  turnip. 

I'linirhHa'ceous.  Resembling  gourds  or 
melons. 

Cu  tiiiary.  Suitable  for  preparations  of 
food. 

( '«//«  or  straw.  ( From  the  Grrok  kalama, 
stubble  or  straw  ;  in  Latin*c«t/mu*.)  The 
stem  of  grasses,  Indian  corn,  sugar 
cane,  &.c. 

Culmif'erous.  Having  culms;  as  wh«f»t, 
grasses,  &c. 

Cunc'iform.  Wedgp-form,  with  the  stalk 
attached  to  the  point. 

Cup' ul a.    A  cup. 

Curv'ed.     Kent  inwards.    See  incurved. 

Cus'pidate.  Having  a  sharp  straight  point. 
(The  eye  tooth  is  cuspidate.) 

Cu'ticle.  The  outside  skin  of  a  plant,  com- 
monly thin,  resemblini;  the  scarf  or  out- 
er skin  of  animals.  It  is  considered  aa 
forming  a  part  of  the  bark. 


Blue. 


Cy'athiform.  Shaped  like  a  common  wine 

glass. 
Cylindrical.    A  circular   shaft  of  nearly 

equal  dimensions  throughout  its  extent 


VOCABULARY. 


421 


Cyme.    Flower  stalks  arising  from  a  com- 
mon centre,  afterwards  variously  subdi- 


vided. 
Cymo't 


Inflorescence  in  cymes. 


Cyp'scle.     (From  the  Greek,  kupselion.)  A  Dicotyledonous 
little  chest. 

D. 


tils  in  another  ;  whether  on  the  same 
plant  or  on  different  plants. 

'  Containing    two   grains    or 


With  two  cotyledons  or 


Dicoc'cous. 
seeds. 


seed  Ic 

Did'ymous.    Twinned,  or  double. 

iDidyna'mia.  (From  dis,  twice,  and  du- 
De'bilis.  Weak,  feeble.  namis,  power.)  Two  powers.  A  name 

Decan'drous.  Plants  with  ten  stamens  in  appropriate  to  one  of  the  Linnsean 


each  flower. 

Decaphyl'lus.    Ten  leaved. 

Decid'uovs.  Falling  oft" in  the  usual  sea- 
son ;  opposed  topersistent  and  evergreen, 
more  durable  than  caducous. 

Declined.    Curved  downwards. 

Dccomposi'tion.  Separation  of  the  chemi- 
cal elements  of  bodies. 

Decom'pound.  Twice  compound,  com- 
posed of  compound  parts. 

Decamp os'itae.  Name  of  an  ancient  class 
of  plants,  having  leaves  twice  com- 
pound ;  that  is,  a  common  foot  stalk 
supporting  a- number  of  lesser  leaves, 
each  of  which  is  compounded. 

Decum'bent.  Leaning  upon  the  ground, 
the  base  being  erect.  This  term  is  appli- 
ed to  stems,  stamens,  &c. 


classes. 

Dierisil'ia.  (From  diairesis,  division.) 
One  of  Jussieu's  orders  of  fruits. 

Difform..  A  monopetalous  corolla  whose 
tube  widens  above  gradually,  and  is  di- 
vided into  unequal  parts  ;  any  distorted 
part  of  the  plant. 

Diffrac'ted.    Twice  bent. 

Diffu'sed.    Spreading. 

Dig'itate.  Like  fingers.  When  one  pe- 
tiole sends  off  several  leafets  from  a  sin- 
gle point  at  its  extremity. 

Digyn'ia.    Having  two  pistils. 

Dimid'iate.    Halved. 

Dioi'cious.  Having  staminate  and  pistil- 
late flowers  on  different  plants. 

Dis'coid.  Resembling  a  disk,  without 
rays. 


Decur'rcnt.    When  the  edges  of  a  leaf  run  Disk.    The  whole  surface  of  a  leaf,  or  of 


down  the  stem  or  stalk. 

Decur'sivc.    Decurrently. 

Decus' sated.  In  pairs,  crossing  each  other. 

Deflec'ted.    Bent  off. 

Defoliation.    Shedding  leaves  in  the  pro- 
per season. 

Dehis'cent.    Gaping,    or    opening.    Most  Di'stichus.  Growing  in  two  opposite  ranks 
capsules  when  ripe  are  dehiscent. 

Del'toid.    Nearly  triangular,  or  diamond  Divar'icate.    Diverging  so  as  to  turn  back- 


form,  as  in  the  leaves  of  the  Lombardy 

poplar. 

Demer'sus.    Under  water. 
Dense.    Close,  compact. 


Den'tate.      Toothed  ;    edged  with   sharp  Dor' sal.    Belonging  to  the  back. 


projections  ;  larger  than  serrate. 
Dentic'ulate.    Minutely  toothed. 
Denu'date.    Plants  whose  flowers  appear 

before  the  leaves ;  appearing  naked. 
Dcor'svm.    Downwards. 


the  top. 

Description 


In  giving  a  complete  de- 


Dextror' sum.  Twining  from  left  to  right 
as  the  hop- vine. 

Diatlel'phous.  (From  dis,  two,  and  adel- 
phid,  brotherhood.)  Two  brotherhoods 
Stamens  united  in  two  parcels  or  sets  , 
flowers  mostly  papilionaceous  ;  fruit  le- 
guminous. 

Di'amondform.    See  deltoid. 

Dianthe'ria.  (From  dis,  two,  and  anther.) 
A  class  of  plants  including  all  such  as 
have  two  anthers. 

Dichot'omous.  Forked,  dividing  into  two 
equal  branches. 

Diclin'ia.    Stamens  in  one  flower,  and  pis- 


the  top  of  a  compound  flower,  as  opposed 

to  its  rays. 

Disper'mus.    Containing  two  seeds. 
Dissep'iment     The  partition  of  a  capsule. 
Dissil'iens.    A   pericarp,    bursting   with 

elasticity  ;  as  the  impatiens. 


wards. 

Diver' ging.  Spreading;  separating  wide- 
ly. 

Diur'nus.    Enduring  but  a  day. 


Dotted.    See  punctate  and  perforated. 
Droop'ing.     Inclining  downward,   more 

than  nodding. 
Drvpe.    A    fleshy   pericarp,  enclosing  a 

stone  or  nut. 


Dcpres'sed.    Flattened,  or  pressed  in  at  Drupa'ceous.      Resembling,    or    bearing 


drupes. 
Dul'cis.    Sweet. 


E. 


scription  of  a  plant,  the  order  of  nature  Dumo'sus.    Bushy. 
is  to  begin  with  the  root,  proceed  to  the  Du'plex,.    Double, 
stem,  branches,  leaves,  appendages,  and 
lastly  to  the  organs  which  compose  the 
flower,  and  the  manner  of  inflorescence. 

Colour  and  size  are  circumstances  least  Eared.    Applied  to  the  lobes  of  a  heart- 
t.o  be  regarded  in   descriptions ;  but  sti- 
pules, bracts,  and  glandular  hairs,  are 
all  of  importance. 


form  leaf,  to  the  side  lobes  near  the  base 
of  some  leaves,  and  to  twisted  parts 
in  plants  which  are  supposed  to  resemble 
the  passage  into  the  ear. 

Ebur'neus.    Ivory  white. 

Echi'nate.  Beset  with  prickles,  as  a  hedge- 
hog. 

Ecos'tate.    Without  ne>-ves  or  ribs. 

Efflorescen'tia.  (From  effloresco,  to  bloom.) 
A  term  expressive  of  the  precise  time  of 
the  year,  and  the  month  in  which  every 
plant  blossoms.  The  term  efflorescence 
is  applied  to  the  powdering  substance 
found  on  Lichens. 

Effolia'tion.  Premature  falling  off  of 
leaves,  by  means  of  diseases  or  soaie 


accidental  causes. 


36 


422 


VOCABULARY. 


Effuse.     Having  an   opening    by  which 

seeds  or  liquids  may  be  poured  out. 
Keg-form.    See  Ovate. 
Egret  or  Aigrette.   The  feathery  or  hairy 

crown  of  seeds,  as  the  down  of  thistles 

and  dandelions.    It  includes  whatever 

remains  on  the  top  of  the  seed  after  the  Fas' dele 

corolla  is  removed.    The  egret  is 

Btiped,  when  It  is  supported  on  a  foot 

•tern;  it  is 

simple,  when  it  consists  of  a  bundle  of]  Faux 

simple  hairs;  it  is 

plumose,  when  each  hair  hns  other  little 

hairs  arranged  along  its  sides. 
FMip'tic.    Oval. 

Elongated.    Exceeding  a  common  length. 
Emar'ginate.    Having  a  notch  at  the  end, 

retuse. 
Em'bryo.     (From  embrao,  to  bud  forth.) 

The  germ  of  a  plant ;  called  by  Linnjtus  Fi'bre 

the  run  uliim. 

En'docarp.     The  inside  skin  of  a  peri- 
carp. 
Endofr'rnous.      Applied   to  stems  which 

grow  from  the  centre  outwardly,  as  in 

monocotyledons. 

Eno'dis.    Without  joints  or  knots. 
En'siform.    Sword  form,  two  edged,  as  in 

the  flag  and  iris. 

Entire.    Even  and  whole  at  the  edge. 
Entomology.  The  science  which  treats  of  Flag 

insects. 
Epi.    A    Greek    word,   signifying  upon ; 

often  used  in  composition. 
Ep'icarp.     (From  epi,  upon,  and  karpos 

fruit.;    The  outer  skin  of  the  pericarp. 
Epider'mis.     (From  epi,  upon,  and  derma, 

•kin.)    See  cuticle. 
Epip'ynous.    (From  epi,  upon,  and  gynia, 

pistil.) 
Ep'ispcrm,    (From  epi,  upon,  and  sperma, 

Eaninoc'tial  flowers.    Opening  at  stated  Flo'rist 

hours  each  day. 
E'quitant.    Opposite    leaves   alternately 

enclosing  the  edges  of  each  other. 
Erect'.     Straight ;   leas    unbending  than 

strictus. 
Eroded.    Appearing  as  if  gnawed  at  the 

edge. 

Es'eulent.    Eatable. 
Ev'ergreen.   Remaining  green  through  the  Fol'licle. 

year,  not  deciduous. 
Excava'tus.    Hollowed  out. 
Exot'ic.    Plants  that  are  brought  from  fo- 
reign countries. 
Expan'ded.    Spread. 
Expectorant.      (From  expectoro,  to  dis 

charge    from    the    breast.)     Medicines 

which   promote  a  discharge   from  the 

lungs. 
Ezser'ted.    Projecting  out  of  the  flower  01 

sheath. 
Eye.    SeeHilum. 


Fari'na.  (From  far,  corn.)  Meal  or  flour. 
A  term  given  to  the  glutinous  parts  of 
wheat  and  other  seeds,  which  is  obtain- 
ed by  grinding  and  sifting.  It  consists  of 
gluten,  starch  and  mucilage.  The  pollen 
is  also  called  farina. 
A  bundle. 

Fascic'ulate.    Collected  in  bundles. 

fastif'iate.    Flat  topped. 

Favo  sus.    Resembling  a  honey  comb. 

faux.    Jaws.    The  throat  of  the  corolla. 

Feb'rifuge.  (From  febria,  a  fever,  and 
fttffo,  to  drive  away.)  That  which  pos- 
sessea  the  property  of  aliaiiiiL-  lever. 

Ferns.  Cryptogamous  plants,  with  the 
fruit  on  the  backs  of  the  leaves,  or  in 
spikes  made  up  of  minute  capsules  open- 
ing transversely. 

Fer'tile.    Pistillate,  yielding  fruit. 

Wbre.    Any  thread-like  part. 

Fil'ament.  The  slender  thread-like  part  of 
the  stamen. 

Fil'ices.    (Frnmfilum,  a  thread.)    Ferns. 

Fil'iform.    Very  slender. 

Firnfbriatt.  Divided  at  the  edge  like 
frin;.fe. 

ia'tulous.    Hollow  or  tubular,  as  the  leaf 
of  the  onion. 

Flac'cid.    Too  limber  to  support  its  own 
weight. 
gel'liform.    Like  a  whip  lash. 

Flam'meus.    Flame  coloured. 

Fla'vus.    Yellow. 

Flesh'y.   'Thick  and  pulpy. 

Flex'uous.  Serpentine,  or  bending  in  a 
zig-zag  form. 

Flo'ra.  Considered  by  the  heathens  as  the 
goddess  of  flowers  ;  descriptions  of  flow- 
ers are  often  called  Floras. 

Flo'ral  leaf.    See  Bract. 

Flo' ret.  Little  flower ;  part  of  a  compound 
flower. 

One  who  cultivates  flowers. 

Flos'cular.    A  tubular  floret. 

Flaw'er  (Flos).  A  term  which  was  for- 
merly applied  almost  exclusively  to  the 
petals.  At  present  a  stamen  and  pistil 
only  are  considered  as  forming  a  perfect 
flower. 

Flow'er  stalk.    See  peduncle. 

Folia' ceous.    Leafy. 

Leafets ;  a  diminutive  of  fo 
aid 


F. 


Facti'tious.    (From  f ado,  to  make.)    Not 

natural,  produced  by  art. 
Fam'ilies.    A  term  in  Botany  implying  a 

natural  union  of  several  genera  into 

groups  ;  sometimes  used  us  synonymous 

with  Natural  Orders. 
Fal'cate.  Sickle  shaped ;  linear  and  crook 

ed. 


Hum,  a  leaf.  The  smaller  leaves  which 
constitute  a  compound  leaf. 

Foli'um.  Leaf.  Leaves  are  fibrous  and 
cellular  processes  of  the  plants,  of  differ- 
ent figures,  but  generally  extended  into 
a  membranaceous  or  skinny  substance. 

Fol'licle.  A  seed  vessel  which  opens  length- 
wise, or  on  one  fide  only. 

Foot' -stalk.  Sometimes  used  instead  of 
peduncle  and  petiole. 

Fork'ed.    See  Dichotomous. 

Frag'ilis.  Breaking  easily,  and  not  bend- 
ing. 

Frond.  The  leaf  of  Cryptogamous  plants ; 
formerly  applied  to  palms. 

Fronde*' cence.  (From  front,  a  loaf.)  The 
time  in  which  each  species  of  plants  un- 
folds its  first  leaves.  See  Frondose. 

Frondo'se  (Frondosus).  Leafy,  or  leaf- 
like. 

Fructifica'tion.  The  flower  and  fruit  with 
their  parts. 

Fructiferous.    Bearing  or  becoming  fruit. 


VOCABULARY. 


423 


Fruc'tus.  The  fruit  is  an  annual  part  o 
the  plant,  which  adheres  to  the  flowe: 
and  succeeds  it ;  and  after  attaining  ma 
turity,  detaches  itself  from  the  paren 
plant,  and  on  being  placed  in  the  bosom 
of  the  earth  gives  birth  to  a  new  vegeta 


ble.    In  common  language  the  fruit  in-  Gram'ina.    Grasses  and  grass-like  plants. 


eludes  both  the  pericarp  and  the  seed 
but  strictly  speaking,  the  latter  only  i 
the  fruit,  while  the  former  is  but  th 
case  or  vessel  which  contains  it. 

Prates' cent.    Becoming  shrubby. 

Fru'tex.    A  shrub. 

Fu'gax.    Fugacious,  flying  off. 


Jill 


fcrg'. 


Props,  supports;  as  the  petiole 


peduncle,  &c. 
Ful'vous.    Yellowish. 
Fun'gi.    The  plural  of  fungus,  a  mush 

room. 
Fun'gous.    Growing  rapidly,  with  a  soft 

texture  like  the  fungi. 
Fun'nel-form.    Tubular  at  the  bottom  and 

gradually  expanded  at  the  top. 
Fu'siform.    Spindle  shaped  ;  a  root  thick 

at  the  top  and  tapering  downwards. 


G. 


Ga'lea.    A  helmet. 

Gem' ma.  A  bud  seated  upon  the  stem  and 
branches,  and  covered  with  scales,  in 
order  to  defend  it  from  injury.  The  bud 
resembles  the  seed  in  containing  the  fu- 
ture plant  in  embryo  ;  but  this  embryo  is 
destitute  of  a  radicle,  though  if  the  bud 
is  planted  in  the  earth,  a  radicle  is  de- 
veloped. 

Gemma' ceous.  Belonging  to  a  bud  ;  made 
of  the  scales  of  a  bud. 

Gener'ic  name.    The  name  of  a  genus. 

Genic'ulate.    Bent  like  a  knee. 

Ge'nus.  (The  plural  of  genus  is  genera.) 
A  family  of  plants  agreeing  in  their  flow- 
er and  fruit.  Plants  of  the  same  genus 
are  thought  te  possess  similar  medicinal 
powers. 

Germ.  The  lower  part  of  the  pistil,  which 
afterwards  becomes  the  fruit. 

Germina' tion.  The  swelling  of  a  seed, 
and  the  unfolding  of  its  embryo. 

Gib'bous.  Swelled  out  commonly  on  one 
side. 

Glabel'lous.    Bald,  without  covering. 

Gla'brous.    Sleek,  without  hairiness. 


Grafting,  is  the  process  of  uniting  the 
branches  or  buds  of  two  or  more  sepa- 
rate trees.  The  bud  or  branch  of  one 
tree,  is  inserted  into  the  bark  of  another, 
and  the  tree  which  is  thus  engrafted  up- 
on is  called  the  stock. 


Gland.    A  small  appendage,  which  seems  Herba'ccous.    Not  woody, 
to  perform  some  office  of  secretion  or  ~" 
exhalation. 

Gland'ular.  Having  hairs  tipped  with  lit- 
tle heads  or  glands.- 

Glauc'ous.  Sea  green,  mealy,  and  easily 
rubbed  off. 

Glome.    A  roundish  head  of  flowers. 

Glomerate.  Many  branchlets  terminated 
by  little  heads. 

Glume.  The  scales  or  chaff  of  grasses, 
composing  the  calyx  and  corolla;  the 
lower  ones  are  called  the  calyx,  all  others 
the  corolla  ;  each  scale,  chaff,  or  husk, 
is  called  a  valve  :  if  there  is  but  one,  the 
flower  is  called  univalve,  if  two,  bivalve 

Glu'tinous.    Viscid,  adhesive. 

Gon.  (From  gonu,  a  knee  or  angle  ;)  as 
pentagon,  five  angled  ;  hexagon,  six  an- 
gled ;  polygon,  many  angled. 


Mostly  found  in  the  class  Triandria. 
Gramin'eous.    Grass-like ;  such  plants  are 

also  called  culmiferous. 
Grand'iflorus.    Having  large  flowers. 
Gran'ular.    Formed  of  grains,  or  covered 

with  grains. 

Grave' olens.    Having  a  strong  odour. 
Grega'rious.    In   flocks,   plants  growing 

together  in  groups. 
Groov'ed.    Marked  w,ith  deep  lines. 
Gymnocarp'es.      (From  gumnos,    naked, 

and  karpos,  fruit.)    Mirbel's  first  class  of 

fruits,  containing  such   as   have  fruit 

without  being  covered  or  concealed. 
Gymnosper'mia.     (From  gumnos,  naked, 

and  sperma,  seed.)'  Having  naked  seeds. 
Gynan'drous.    Stamens  growing  upon  the 

pistil. 
Gyn'ia.   From  the  Greek,  signifying  pistil. 

H. 

Habita'tio,  or  Habitat.  The  native  situa- 
tion of  plants. 

Habit.  The  external  appearance  of  a 
plant,  by  which  it  is  known  at  first  sight, 
without  regard  to  botanical  distinctions. 

Hair.    See  Pilus. 

Hazr-like.    See  Capillary. 

fal'bert-form.    See  Hastate. 

land'-form.    See  Palmate. 

lang'ing.    See  Pendant. 

Hastate.  Shaped  like  a  halbert ;  it  dif- 
fers from  arrow-shaped  in  having  the 
side  processes  more  distinct  and  diver- 
gent. 

Head.  A  dense  collection  of  flowers, 
nearly  sessile. 

feart.    See  Corculum  and  Corcle. 

feart'-form.    See  Cordate. 

Hel'met.    The  concave  upper  lip  of  a  labi- 
ate flower. 
Helminthol'ogy.  The  science  which  treats 

of  worms. 

Hepat'ic.    Liver-like. 
Herb.    A  plant  which  has  not  a  woody 
stem. 


Her' b  age.  Every  part  of  a  plant  except 
the  root  and  fructification. 

Herba'rium.    A  collection  of  dried  plants. 

Herb'ist.  One  who  collects  and  sells 
plants.  <j 

Hexag'onal.    Six  cornered. 

Hi'ans.    Gaping. 

Hi'lum.  The  scar  or  mark  on  a  seed  at 
the  place  of  attachment  of  the  seed  to 
the  seed  vessel. 

Hir'sute.    Rough  with  hairs. 

His'pid.    Bristly,  more  than  hirsute. 

Ho'ary.  Whitish  coloured,  having  a  scaly 
mealiness,  not  unlike  glaucous. 

Holera'ceous.  Suitable  for  culinary  pur- 
poses. The  term  is  derived  from  holus, 
signifying  pot  herbs.  One  of  the  natural 
orders  of  Linnasus,  called  Holeracce,  in- 
cludes such  plants  as  are  used  for  the 


424 


VOCABULARY. 


table,  or  in  the  economy  of  domestic  af 

fairs. 

Hon'eycup.    See  nectary. 
Hood'ed.    See  cucullate,  or  cowled. 
Hora'riun.    Continuing  but  an  hour. 
Horizon' tal.    Parallel  to  the  horizon. 
Horn.    See  spur. 
Ifu'iuiH*.    Low,  humble. 
Husk.    The  larger  kind  of  glume,  as  th 

husks  of  Indian  corn. 
Hybema'lis.    Growing  in  winter. 
Hy'brid.    A  vegetable  produced  by  th 

mixture  of  two  species ;  the  seeds  of  hy 

brids  are  not  fertile. 
Hy'po.  (From  upo,  under.)  Much  used  in 

the  composition  of  scientific  terms. 
Hypocratrr'iform.    Salver  shaped,  with  a 

tube  abruptly  expanded  into  a  flat  bor 

dcr. 
Hypog'ynous.    Under  the  style. 

I. 

Icthyol'ofry.    The  science  of  fishes. 

Icosari 'drous.  Having  about  twenty  sta 
mend  growing  on  the  calyx.  Such  plants 
furnish  a  great  proportion  of  the  mos. 
delicious  pulpy  fruits. 

Im'bricate.    Lying  over,  like  scales, 
shingles  of  a  roof. 

Impcr'fi  rt.    Wanting  the  stamen  or  pistil 

Incarna'tua.    Flesh  coloured. 

;        >#r.    Front  tooth. 

Included.  Wholly  received,  or  container 
in  a  cavity  :  the  opposite  of  exsert. 

Incomplete.  Flowers  destitute  of  a  calyx 
or  corolla  arc  said  to  In-  incomplete.  A 
term  differim:  from  imperfect. 

Incras'yuti.  Thickened  upward,  larger 
towards  tho  end. 

In'crcmeiit.    The  quantity  of  increase. 

Inruiii'/,'  nt.    1  ,eaiiin»  upon  or  against. 

Incur  'ml.     Unit  inwards. 

Indig'enous.  Native,  growing  wild  in  n 
country.  (Some  r.\otics,  after  a  time 
spread  and  appear  as  it  indigenous.) 

In' du rat i'd.     Becoming  hard. 

Ivtlu'*iuin.     A  covcrin«;  plural  indnsia. 

Infi  'riur.  Below  ;  a  calyx  or  corolla  is  in 
t'erior  when  it  comes  out  below  the  germ 

Injln'trd.  Appearing  as  if  blown  out  with 
wind,  hollow. 

/  d.    The  same  as  incurved. 

Inflorescence.  (From  ivflorcsco,  to  flour- 
ish.) The  manner  in  which  flowers  are 
connected  to  the  plant  by  the  peduncle, 
as  in  the  whorl,  raceme,  &c. 

Infrin-'tiif.  Hent  in  with  such  an  acute 
angle  as  to  appear  broken. 

Infundibultfiu-'mi.t.     Funnel  form. 

hi* 1 1-  tul.    (Jrowinsioutof,  or  fixed  upon. 

/».-•/ "ili  a*.     Sitting  upon. 

Insig-ni'tus.    Marked. 

Ih'teger.    Entire. 

Jtiti-nin'ilc.  The  space  between  joints ;  as 
in  gr.i- 

Intcrniptcdly-pin'nate.  When  smaller  lea- 
fets  are  inte.rposed  among  the  principal 
ones. 

Intor'tu*.    Twisted  inwards. 

Jut  rail  ii'ced.  Not  originally  native. — 
Brought  from  s.ime  other  country. 

Inrutu'crinii.  A  kind  of  general  calyx  serv- 
ing >  many  flowers,  generally  situ- 


ated at  the  base  of  an  umbel  or  bead. 

Involu'cel.    A  partial  involucrum. 

In'volute.    Boiled  inwards. 

Irides'cent.     (From    /ri>,    the    rainbow.) 

Reflecting  light. 

Irreg'ular.  Differing  in  figure,  si/.p  or  pro- 
portion of  parts  among  themselves. 

Irritabil'ity.  The  power  of  iM-ing  excited 
so  as  to  produce  contraction  ;  this  power 
belongs  to  vegetables  as  well  as  animals ; 
sensation  i-s  thought  to  imply  the  exist- 
ence of  internal  properties  not  possessed 
by  plants  ;  though  some  ha\e  attributed 
sensation  to  plants  as  well  as  animals. 

J. 

Jag' red.    Irregularly  divided  and  subdivi- 

Jaws.    See  faux. 
Joint.--.    Knots  or  rings  in  culms,  pods, 

leaves,  Sec. 

Ju'fum.    A  yoke;  growing  in  pairs. 
Juita-position.     (From  juxta,  near,  and 
I,  to  place.)     Nearness  of  place. 

K. 

or  the  feel.    The  under  lip  of  a  papilionaceous 

flower. 

Kerl'ed.  Shaped  like  the  keel  of  a  boat  or 
ship. 

/.    See  Nucleus. 

',,11,1,1.     Heart  shaped    without 
the  point,  and  broader  than  long. 
Knre.    A  joint,  being  genticulate. 
Knob'bed.    In  thick  lumps,  as  the  potato. 
Knot.    Bee  joints. 

La'biate.    Having  lips  as  in  the  class  Di- 

dynamia. 

acin'iate.    Jagged,  irregularly  torn,  lace- 
rated. 

Lades' cent.  Yielding  a  juice,  unusually 
white  like  milk,  sometimes  red,  as  in  the 
blood  root. 

tir'tui*.    Milk  white. 
ocus' tris.    Growing  about  lakes. 
Smooth,  even. 

Lamil' Intnl.    In  thin  plates. 

La  in' in  n.  The  liroad  or  flat  end  of  a  petal, 
in  distinction  from  ils  daw. 

La'nate.     Woolly. 

Laiicr'-iilnti'.  Spear  shaped,  narrow  with 
both  ends  acute. 

Lance-o'rate.  A  compound  of  lanceolate 
and  ovate,  intermediate. 

Lut'i-nil.     (From  latus.)     On  one  side. 
La' tint.     (From  lateo,  to  hide.)    Hidden, 
concealed 

Lnr'ra.  The  caterpillar  state  of  an  in- 
sect. 

Lax.    Limber,  flaccid. 

Leafet.  A  partial  leaf,  part  of  a  com- 
pound leaf. 

Lcaf'-statk.    See  petiole. 
rff'uine.     A  jiot  or   pericarp,  having  its 
seeds  attached  to  one  side  or  suture  ;   as 
the  pea  and  IM  an. 

',rtru'iitiinniii.     Hearing  legume*. 

.tpu>i't/iiui».  A  term  used  for  a  petal-like 
nectary ;  like  that  of  the  larkspur  and 
monkshood. 


VOCABULARY. 


425 


Li'ber.  The  inner  bark  of  plants.  Imme- 
diately under  the  cuticle  is  a  succulent, 
cellular  substance,  for  the  most  part  of  a  Mollus'cous.  Such  animals  as  have  a  soft 


green  colour,  especially  in  the  leaves 
and  branches.  Under  this  cellular  in- 
tegument is  the  bark,  consisting  of  but 
one  layer  in  plants  or  branches  only  one 
year  old.  In  older  branches  arid  trunks 


body  without  bones ;  as  the  oyster. 

Mo-nadel'phous.  Having'the  stamens  uni- 
ted in  a  tube  at  the  base. 

Monti' if  arm.  Granulate,  strung  together 
like  beads. 


of  trees,  it  consists  of  as  many  layers  as  Monocotyledons.    Having  but  one  cotyle- 


they  are  years  old  ;  the  innermost  and 
newest  being  called  the  liber ;  it  is  in  this 
layer  only  that  the  essential  vital  func- 
tions art;  carried  tin  for  the  time  bein<r, 
v,-hic!i  it  is  pushed  outwards  with 
the  cellular  integument,  and,  like  that, 
becomes  a  lifeless  crust. 

Ijfr'nraus.     Woody. 

J. iff' num.     Wood. 

jjfru'late.  Strap  or  ribbon  like,  flat,  as 
the  florets  of  the  dandelion. 


don. 
Mona'cious.    Having  pistillate  and  stami- 

nate  flowers  on  the  same  plant. 
Monopet'alous.      The  corolla  all  in  one 

piece. 

Monophyl'lons.    Consisting  of  one  leaf. 
Monosper'mus.    One  seed  to  a  flower. 
Monta'nus.    Growing  on  mountains. 
Moon-form.    See  crescent-form.    . 
Mosses.    The   second  order  of  the  class 

Cryptogamia. 


Lilia'ceous.     A  corolla  with  six    petals  Mu'cronate.      Having   a  small   point    or 


gradually  spreading  from  the  base. 


JAntb.    The  border  or  spreading  part  of  a  Mul'tiflorus.    Many  flowered. 


monopetalous  corolla. 
Lin' ear.    Long  and  narrow,  with  parallel 

sides,  as  the  leaves  of  grasses. 

Lip.  The  under  petal  in  a  labiate  corolla. 
Littor"ibus.  Growing  on  coasts,  or  shores. 
Liv'idous.    Dark  purple. 
Lobe.    A  large  division,  or  distinct  portion 

of  a  leaf  orj>etal. 
Loc'ulus. 

place 


Lo'ment.    A  pod  resembling  a  legume,  but  Napifor'mis.    Resembling  a  turnip. 


divided  by  transverse  partitions. 
J^ongifo'lius.    Long  leaved. 
Longis'simus.    Very  long. 
Lu'ddus.    Bright  and  shining. 
I  At!  rid.    Of  a  pale  dull  colour. 
Lu'teus.    Yellow. 
Ly'rate.    Pinnatifid,  with  a  large  roundish 

leafcl  at  the  end. 


M. 


Pro 


Mola'rcs.    Back  teeth,  grinders. 
Soft. 


prickle  at  the  end  of  an  obtuse  leaf. 


Multiplex.    Many  fold,  petals  lying  over 

each  other  in  two  rows. 
Mul' tus.    Many. 
Mu'ricate.    Covered  with  prickles. 

N. 

Wa'ked.    Destitute  of  parts  usually  found. 
(From  locus,  a  place.)    A  little  Na'nus.    Dwarfish,  very  small, 

Wap.    Downy,  or  like  fur,  tomentose. 


Warcot'ic.  (From  narco,  to  stupefy.)  A 
substance  which  has  the  power  of  pro- 
curing sleep  —  Opium  is  highly  narcotic. 

Na'tant.    Floating. 

Natural  character.  That  which  is  appa- 
rent, having  no  reference  to  any  particu- 
lar method  of  classification. 

Natural  history.  The  science  which  treats 
of  nature. 

Nec'tary.  (From  nectar,  the  fabled  drink 
of  the  gods.)  The  part  of  a  flower  which 
produces  honey  ;  this  term,  is  applied  to 
any  appendage  of  the  flower  which  has 
no  other  name. 

Ncmoro'sus.  Growing  in  groves,  often 
given  as  a  specific  name,  as  Anemone 
nemorosa  ;  the  ending  in  a  denotes  the 
adjective  as  being  in  the  feminine  gen- 
der; the  adjective  in  Latin  varying  its 
termination  to  conform  to  the  gender  of 
the  substantive. 


Macula' tus.    Spotted. 

Mures' cent.    Withering. 

Mar' gin.    The  edge,  or  border. 

Mar'itime.    Growing  near  the  sea. 

Mrdul'la.  The  pith  or  pulp  of  vegetables. 
The  centre  or  heart  of  a  vegetable.  Va- 
rious opinions  have  been  entertained  re- 
specting the  importance  of  the  pith ; 
Linnceus  considered  it  was  the  seat  oi 
life  and  source  of  vegetation  ;  that  its 

vigour  was  the  principal  cause  of  the  Nerves.    Parallel  veins, 
shooting  forth  of  branches,  and  that  the  Nerved.    Marked  with  nerves,  so  called, 
seeds   were   formed  from  it.    It  is  now 
generally  thought  that  the  pith  does  not 
perform  so  important  a  part  in  the  econo- 
my of  vegetation  as  was  supposed  by 
Linnaeus. 

Melliferous.     (From   mcl,  honey.) 
ducing,  or  containing  honey. 

Mem'branous.    Very  thin  and  delicate. 

Mcs'ocarp.    The  middle  substance  of  •       -.„ _. 

pericarp  or  leaf,  having  the  epicarp  on\Nod'ding:    Partly  drooping, 
the  outer,  and  the  endocarp  on  the  inner  Node,  Nodus.    Knot, 
side..  No' men.    A  name. 

Mes'osperm.    That  part  of  the  seed  which  Notch' ed.    See  crenate. 
corresponds  to  the  mesocarp  of  the  peri- iNu'clcus.    Nut,  or  kernel, 
carp.  INu'dus.    See  naked. 

Mid' rib.    The  main  or  middle  rib  of  a  leaf  Nut,  Nux.    See  nucleus. 


, 

though  not  organs  of  sensibility  like  the 
nerves  in  the  animal  system. 
Nic'  'titans.  (From  a  word  which  signifies 
to  twinkle,  or  wink.)  Applied  as  a  spe- 
cific name  to  some  plants  which  appear 
sensitive  ;  as  the  cassia  nictitans. 


Ni'ger.    Black. 
Nit'idus.    Glossy,  glittering. 
The  middle  substance  of  the  Niv'eus.    Snow  white. 


running  from  the  stem  to  the  apex. 
Minia'tus.    Scarlet,  vermillion  colour. 


Nu'tant.    See  nodding,  pendulous. 


36* 


426 


VOCABULARY. 


O.  the  keel  as  the  pea.    Mostly  found  in 

the  class  Diadelphia. 
Ob.    A  word    which,    prefixed  to  other  Papil'lose.    Covered  with  protuberances. 


terms,  denotes  the  invention  of  the  usual 
position ;  as,  obcordate,  inversely  cor- 
date. 


Pappus.    The  down  of  seeds,  as  the  dan- 


Obcon'ic. 
wards. 


Conic  with  the  point  down- 

Obcor'date.    Heart-shaped  with  the  point 

downwards. 
Oblance'olatr.    Lanceolate  with  the  base 

the  narrowest. 
Obli'que.    A  position  between  horizontal 

and  vertical. 
Oblong.    Longer  than  oval,  with  the  sides 

parallel. 
Obo'vate.    Ovate  with  the  narrowest  end 

towards  the  stem,  or  place  of  insertion. 
Ob'solete.   Indistinct,  appearing  as  if  worn 

out. 

Obtu'se.    Blunt,  rounded,  not  acute. 
Odora'tus.    Scented,  odorous. 
Officina'lis.    Such  plants  as  are  kept   for 

sale  as  medicinal,  or  of  use  in  the  arts. 
Old,  Oi'dr.s.    This  termination  imports  re-  Pau'ci.    Few  in  number. 


Parasit'ic.  Growing  on  another  plant  and 
deriving  nourishment  from  it. 

Parcri chyma.  A  succulent  vegetable  sub- 
stance ;  the  cellular  substance  ;  the  thick 
part  of  leaves  between  the  opposite  sur 
faces ;  the  pulpy  part  of  fruits,  as  in  the 
apple,  &.c. 

Partial.    Used  in  distinction  to  general. 

Parti'ti»n.  The  membrane  \vliiili  <li\id<> 
pericarps  into  cells,  called  the  dissepi- 
ment. It  is  parallel  when  it  unites  with 
the  valves  where  they  unite  with  each 
other.  It  is  contrary  or  transverse  when 
it  meets  a  valve  in  the  middle  or  in  any 
part  not  at  its  suture. 

Parted.    Deeply  divided ;  more  than  cleft. 

Patens.  Spreading,  forming  less  than  a 
right  angle. 


semblance,  aspetaloid,  like  a  petal ;  tka 
lictroides,  resembling  a  thalictrum,  &c. 
Opa'yuc.     Not  transparent. 


capsules  of  mosses. 
Opposite.    Standing  against  each  other  on 

opposite  sides  of  the  stem. 
Orbic'vlar.    Circular. 


gy  which  treats  of  birds. 
O*.    A  bone.    A  mouth. 
Os'seous.    Bony,  hard. 


ripens. 


O'vate.    Egg  shaped,  oval  with  the  lower  Peregri'nus.    Foreign,  wandering. 


end  largest 


as  birds,  &c. 
O'vules.    Little  eggs ;    the  rudiments  of 


fertilization  ;  after  that  the  ovules  ripen 
into  seeds. 
o'ricin.    An  egg. 

P. 

Pal"ate.    A  prominence  in  the  lower  lip 
of  a  labiate  corolla,  closing  or  nearly 

clo.-iiii:  t!i«'  throat. 
Paleaceous.    See  Chaffy. 


Pal'  male.    Hand-shaped;  divided  so  as  to 

re-emble    the 

spread. 
Pakuftri*.      Growing    in    swamps 

marshes. 


delion;    a   feathery 
Bgret. 


appendage.       See 


Pec'tinate.    Like  the  ie,  tii  of  a  comb,  in- 
termediate between  firnbriate  and  pinna 
tifid. 
Oper  culum.    The  lid  which  covers  the  Pedate.    Having  a  central  leaf  or  segment 


and  the  two  side  ones  which  are  com- 
pound, like  a  bird's  foot. 


Ped'icel. 
cle. 


A  little  stalk  of  partial  pedun- 


Orchld'eoua.    Petals  like  the  orchis,  fonr  Pedun'ele.    A  stem  bearing  the  flower  and 

arched,  the  fifth  longer.  fruit. 

Ornithology.    That  department  of  zoolo-  Pd'licle.    A  thin  membranous  coat. 


Pellucid.    Transparent  or  limpid. 
Peltate.    Having  the  petiole  attached  to 
some  part  of  the  under  sidi-  of  the  leaf. 


O'vary.    A  name  sometimes  given  to  the  Pendant.    Hanging  down,  pendulous, 
outer  covering  of  the  germ,  before  it  Pen'cUled.    Shaped  like  a  painter's  pencil 


or  brush. 


Peren'nial.    Lasting  more  than  two  years. 


Ovip'arous.   Animals  produced  from  eggs,  Perfo'liate.      Having    a    stem    running 


through  the  leaf ;  differs  from  connate 
in  not  consisting  of  two  leaves. 


seeds  which  the  perm  contains  before  its  Per 'forate.      Havin«   holes  as   if  prickr-d 


throiiL'h  :  differs   from   punctate,  which 

has  dots  resembling  huh.-.. 
Pe'ri.    Around. 
Per'ianth.    A  sort  of  calyx. 
Per'icarp.    (From  peri,  around,  and  kar 

pos,  fruit.)    A  seed  vessel  or  whatever 

contains  the  seed. 
/'(/•/V//;(,,;/x.    From  peri,  around,  and  gy- 

nia,  pistil. 
Pe'rispcrm.   (From  peri,  around,  and  spcr- 


ma,  seed.)     Around  the  >eed. 

hand  with  the  fingers  Permanent.  Any  part  of  a  plant  is  said 
to  be  permanent  when  it  remains  longer 
than  is  usual  for  similar  parts  in  most 
plants. 


and 


Paiidu'riform.    Contracted  in  the  middle  Persis'tcnt.    Not  falling  off.    See  Perma- 


Jike  a  violin  or  guitar. 
Pan'i  7r.      A   loose,    irregular 


nent. 
bunch    of  Pcr'sonate. 


the  oat. 

Pan'icled.    Bearing  panicles. 

Papil'io.    A  butterfly. 

Papilionaceous.  Butterfly-shaped, — an  ir- 
regular corolla  consisting  of  four  petals  ; 
the  upper  one  is  caUed  the  banner,  the 
two  side  ones  wings,  and  the  lower  one 


Masked  or  closed. 


flowers  with  sub-divided  branches,  as  Pe'tal.    The  leaf  of  a  corolla,    usually 


coloured. 

Pe'tiole.  The  stalk  which  supports  th<; 
leaf. 

Phenog'amous.  Such  flowers  as  have  sta- 
mens and  pistils  visible,  including  all 
plants  except  the  cryptogamous. 


VOCABULARY. 


427 


Physiol'ogtj.    Derived  from  the  Greek,  a\Pseudo.    When  prefixed  to  a  word,  it  ira- 


discourse  of  Nature. 


Pkvtol'otni.    The  science  which  treats  of  Pubes'cent.    Hairy,  downy,  or  woolly, 
the  organization  of  vegetables,   nearly  D~7~      rphQ  """"  -«ii"i«r    «ihotan» 


synonymous    with    the    physiology  of 

vegetables. 

Pi'leus.    The  hat  of  a  fungus. 
Pillar.    See  Colurnella  and  Column. 
Pilose.  Hairy,  with  distinct  straitish  hairs. 
Pilus.    A  hair. 
Pimpled.    See  Papillose. 
Pinna. 


See  Papillose. 
A  wing  feather,  applied  to  leafets. 

Pinnate.  A  leaf  is  pinnate  when  the  leaf- 
ets are  arranged  in  two  rows  on  the  side 
of  a  common  petiole,  as  in  the  rose. 

Pinnat'ifid.  Cut  in  a  pinnate  manner.  It 
differs  from  pinnate,  in  being  a  simple 
leaf  deeply  parted,  while  pinnate  is  a 
compound  of  distinct  leafets. 

Pistil.  The  central  organ  of  most  flow 
ers,  consisting  of  the  germ,  style,  and 
stigma. 

Pis'tillate.    Having  pistils  but  no  stamens 

Pith.  The  spongy  substance  in  the  centre 
of  the  stems  and  roots  of  most  plants 
See  Medulla. 

Plaited.    Folded  like  a  fan. 

Plane.    Flat  with  an  even  surface. 

Plica' tus.    See  Plaited. 

Plumo'se.    Feather-like. 

Plu'mula  or  Plume.  The  ascending  part 
of  a  plant  at  its  first  germination. 

Plu'rimus.    Very  many. 

Pod.  A  dry  seed  vessel,  not  pulpy,  mos* 
commonly  applied  to  legumes  and  sili- 


Pulp.     The  juicy  cellular    substance  of 

berries  and  other  fruits. 
Pulver'ulent.    Turning  to  dust. 
^u'milus.    Small,  low. 
Punctate.    Appearing  dotted  as  if  pricked. 

See  Perforated. 

ungent.    Sharp,  acrid,  piercing. 

urpu'reus.     Purple. 


ques. 
Po'dosperm.     (From  podos 


a  part,   anc 


spcrma,  seed.)    Pedicel  of  the  seed. 
Pointal.     A  name    sometimes    used  for 

pistil. 
Pollen.    Properly  fine  flour,  or  the  dus 


that  flies  in  a  mill. 


11UU1, 

The  d 


ust  which  is 


contained  within  the  anthers. 
Po'lus.    Many. 
Polyan'drous.    Having  many  stamens  in 

serted  upon  the  receptacle 


Polygamous.    Having  some  flowers  which  Ramus.    A  branch. 


are  perfect,  and  others    with   stamen 

only,  or  pistils  only. 
Polymorphous .      Changeable, 

many  forms. 

Polypet'alous.  Having  many  petals. 
Polyphyl'lous.  Having  many  leaves. 
Pome.  A  pulpy  fruit,  containing  capsule 

as  the  apple. 
Porous.    Full  of  holes. 


Pramorse.  Ending  bluntly,  as  if  bitten  off 


plies  obsolete  or  false. 


Pusil'lus. 
Puta'men. 


Diminutive,  low. 
A  hard  shell. 


Pyx'ide.  (From  puxis,  a  box.)  Name  of 
one  of  MirbePs  genera  of  fruit. 

a. 

Quadran'gular.    Having  four  corners  or 

angles. 

Quarter'natc.    Four  together. 
Quinate.    Five  together. 

R. 

Raceme.  (From  raz,  a  bunch  of  grapes, 
a  cluster.)  That  kind  of  inflorescence  in 
which  the  flowers  are  arranged  by  sim- 
ple pedicels  on  the  sides  of  a  common 
peduncle;  as  the  currant. 

Ra'chis.  The  common  stalk  to  which  the 
florets  and  spikelets  of  grasses  are  at- 
tached :  as  in  wheat  heads.  Also  the 
midrib  of  some  leaves  and  fronds. 

Ra'diate.  The  ligulate  florets  around  the 
margin  of  a  compound  flower. 

Ra'dix.  A  root ;  the  lower  part  of  the 
plant  which  performs  the  office  of  at- 
tracting moisture  from  the  soil,  and  com- 
municating it  to  the  other  parts  of  the 
plant. 

Rad'ical.    Growing  from  the  root. 

The  part  of  the  corculum   which 

afterwards  forms  the  root ;  also  the  mi- 
nute fibres  of  a  root. 

Ramiferous.    Producing  branches. 


Ray.    The  outer   margin    of  compound 

flowers. 

assuming  Recep'tacle.  The  end  of  a  flower  stalk  ; 
the  base  to  which  the  different  parts  of 
fructification  are  usually  attached. 

Recli'ned.    Bending  over  with  the  end  In- 
clining towards  the  ground. 

Rectus.    Straight. 

Recurv'ed.    Curved  backwards. 


Reflex' ed.    Bent  backwards,  more  than  re- 


the  same  as  abrupt.  curved. 

Pras'inus.    Green,  like  a  leek.  Reg'mate.    (From  rcgma,  to  break  with 

Praten'sis.    Growing  in  meadow  land.          an  explosion.)    Name  of  one  of  Mirbel's 
Prickle.    Differs  from  the  thorn  in  being      genera  of  fruits. 

fixed  to  the  bark,  the  thorn  is  fixed  to  Refrig' 'erant.  *  (From  rcfrigero,  to  cool.) 


the  wood. 
Prismat'ic. 
sides. 


Cooling  medicines. 
Having  several  parallel  flat  Rc'niform.    Kidney-shaped,  heart-shaped 
without  the  point. 


is.  An  elongated  nose  or  snout, 
applied  to  projecting  parts  of  vegetables 

Process.    A  projecting  part. 

Procum'bent.    Lying  cm  the  ground. 

Proliferous.  A  flower  is  said  to  be  pro- 
liti'ious  when  it  has  smaller  ones  grow- 
ing out  of  it. 

Prop.    Tendrils  and  other  climbers. 

Prox'imus.    Near. 


Repand.    Slightly   serpentine,  or  waving 

on  the  edge. 
Repens.    Creeping. 
Rcsu'pinatc.    Upside  down. 
Retic'ulate.     Veins    crossing  each  other 

like  net  work. 
Retuse.    Having  a  slight  notch  In  the  end, 

less  than  emarginate. 
Rever'sed.    Bent  back  towards  the  base. 


4-28 


VOCABULARY. 


Rcr'olntt.    Rolled  backward  or  outward. 

Hluniibiiiil.     Diamond-form. 

Hil>.    A  nerve  like  supixtrt  to  a  leaf. 

Riffid.    Stiff,  not  pliable. 

Hi n  <t.  The  band  around  the  capsules  of 
ferns. 

Ringent.  Gaping  or  grinning;  a  term  be- 
longing! to  tin-  labiate  corollas. 

Root.  The  descending  part  of  a  vegeta- 
ble. 

Rootlet.    A  fibre  of  a  root,  a  little  root. 

Rosaceous.  A  corolla  formed  of  roundish 
spreading  petals,  without  claws  or  with 
very  short  ones. 

RHXI''H.<.     Hose  coloured. 


Roatel.    That  pointed  part  of  the  embryo,  si' nun.     A   bay;  applied  to  the  plant,   a 


which  tends  downward  at  the  firat  ger- 
mination of  the  .-ceil. 

Runt  rate.    Having  a  protuberance  like 
bird's  beak. 

Rotate.     Wheel-form. 

Rntun'du*.     Round. 

Ruhr, i.     Hed. 

Rufous.    Reddish  yellow. 

««>»..•!.     Wrinkled. 

Run  i-innii.    Having  large  teeth  pointing 
backward,  as  the  dandelion. 

Rupcs'tri*.    Growing  among  rocks. 


Sapit'tate.    Arrow-form. 

Stuiferou*.     Heading  or  producing  salt. 

Salnus.    Salt  t a>;.  (I. 

Salver-form .    Corolla  with  a  ,flat  spread 

ing  border  proceeding  from  the  top  of  a 

tube  :  flower  monojietalous. 
Sam'ara.    A  winged  pericarp  not  opening 

by  \  alves.  as  the  maple. 
Sap.    The  watery  fluid  contained  in  the 

tubes  and  little  cells  of  vegetables. 
Sapor.    Having  taste. 
SariHcn' tose .    Running  on  the  ground,  and 


annually  a  large  shoot  in  the  spring  and 
another  in  June. 

s/truA.  A  jilant  with  a  woody  stem, 
branching  out  nearer  the  ground  than  a 
tree,  usually  smaller. 

Sic'cus.     Dry. 

SH'icle.    A  seed  vessel  constructed  like  a 
silique,  but  not  longer  than  it  is  broad. 
liquc.     A  long  pod  or  seed  vessel  of  two 
valves,  having  the  seed  attached  to  the 
two  edges  alternately. 

Simple.  Not  divided,  branched  or  com- 
pounded. 

v///  u,rt,'.  The  margin  hollowed  out  re- 
sembling a  bay. 


roum'isli  cavity  in  the  edge  of  the  leaf 

or  petal. 

So'ri.    Plural  of sorus ;  fruit  dots  on  ferns. 
Spa'tlix.    An  elongated  rc.-rptaclc  of  flow 

ers,  commonly  proceeding  from  a  spatha. 
Spa'tha.      A     sheathing     calyx      opening 

lengthwise  on  one  side,   and  consisting 

of  one  or  more  valves. 
Spat'vlate.    Large,    obtuse    at    the    i  ml. 

gradually  tapering  into  a  stalk   at  the 

base. 

Spe'dct.    The  lowest  division  of  vegeta- 
bles. 

Specif  ie.    Belonging  to  a  species  only. 
Sperrma.    Seed. 
spike.    A  kind  of  inflorescence  in  which 

the  flowers  are  sessile,  or  nearly  so,  as 

in  the  mullein,  or  wheat. 
Spike' let.    A  small  spike. 
Spin'dle  shaped.    Thick  at  top,  gradually 

tapering,  fusiform. 
.Spine.    A  thorn  or  sharp  process  growing 

from  the  wood. 
Spino'sus.    Thorny. 
pi'ral.    Twisted  like  a  screw. 
Spur.    A  sharp  hollow  projection  from  a 

flower,  commonly  the  nectary. 


striking  root  from  the  joints  only,  as  the  Spur' red-rye.     A  morbid  swelling  of  the 


strawberry. 
Sar'cocarp.    (From  jtorz,  flesh,  and  Jtar- 

f  cw,  fruit.)    The  fleshy  part  of  fruit. 
Sen 'In  r  or  Sca'brous.    Rough. 
Scandena.    Climbing. 
•Scape.    A  stalk  which  springs  from  the 


root,  and  supports  flowers  and  fruit  but  Squarro'se. 

no  leaves,  as  the  dandelion.  •  a;< •-. 

Sca'rious.     Having  a  thin  membranous  stamen.     That  part    of 

margin.  which  the  artificial  cl 

Scattered.    Standing  without  any  regular  Stam'inate. 

order.  tils. 


Scionf.    Shoots  proceeding  laterally  from  Standard.    See  banner. 


the  roots  or  bulb  of  a  root. 


leaf,  calyx  or  corolla. 

Sempervi'reii*.  Living  through  the  win- 
ter, and  retaining  its  leaves. 

Serrate.    Notched  like  the  teeth  of  a  saw. 

Ser'ntlatc.     Minutely  serrate. 

Sessile.  Sitting  down  ;  placing  immedi- 
ately on  the  main  stem  without  a  foot 
stalk. 

Seta.    A  bristle. 

Sfta'ccous.    Bristle-form. 

Shuft.  A  pillar,  sometimes  applied  to  the 
style. 

Sheath.  A  tubular,  or  folded  leafy  portion 
including  within  it  the  stem. 

Shoot.    Each  tree  and  shrub  sends  forth 


seed,  of  a  black  or  dark  colour,  some- 
times called  ergot;  the  black  kind  is 
called  the  malignant  ergot.  Graingrow- 
ing  in  low  moist  ground,  or  new  land, 
is  most  subject  to  it. 
Squamo'sus.  Scaly. 

Ragged,    having    divergent 


the   flower  on 
«  are  founded. 
Having  stamens  without  pis- 


Strl'late.    Like  a  star. 


Segment.    A  part  or  principal  division  of  Stem.     A   general    supporter    of    leaves, 


flowers  and  fruit. 
Stenless.    Having  no  stem. 
Ster'ile.    Barren. 
Stiff 'ma.    The  summit,  or  top  of  the  pis 

Stipe.    The  stem  of  a  fern,  or  fungus ; 

also  the  stem  of  the  down  of  seeds,  as 

in  the  dandelion. 
xtip'itate.    Supported  by  a  stipe. 
Sti'pu/e.    A  leafy  appendage,  situated  at 

the  base  of  petioles,  or  leavi  s. 
Stoloniferous.     Putting  forth  scions,  or 

running  shoots. 

Stramin'eous.    Straw  like,  straw  coloured. 
Strap-form.    Ligulate. 
Stratum.    A  layer ;  plural  strata. 


VOCABULARY. 


429 


Striate.    Marked  with  fine  parallel  lines. 
Strictus.    Stiff  and  straight,  erect. 
Strigose.   Armed  with  close  thick  bristles. 
Strob'ilum.    A  cone,  an  ament  with  woody 

scales. 
Style.    That  part  of  the  pistil  which  is 

between  the  stigma  and  the  germ. 
Styl'ides.    Plants  with  a  very  long  style 
Sua'vis.    Sweet,  agreeable. 
Sub.    Used  as  a  diminutive,  prefixed  to 

different  terms  to  imply  the  existence  of 

a  quality  in  an  inferior  degree  ;  in  Eng 

lish,  may  be  rendered  by  somewhat ;   it 

also  signifies  under. 
Subero'se.    Corky. 
Submersed.    Growing  under  water. 
Subter'raneous.    Growing   and  flowering 

under  ground. 
Subtus.    Beneath. 
Sub' acute.    Somewhat  acute. 
Sub'sessile.    Almost  sessile. 
Sub' ul  ate.    Awl  shaped,  narrow  and  sharp 

pointed.    See  awl  form. 
Sue' culent.    Juicy  ;  it  is  also  applied  to  a 

pulpy  leaf,  whether  juicy  or  not. 
Suc'cus.    Sap. 
Sucker.    A  shoot  from  the  root  by  which 

the  plant  may  be  propagated. 
Suffru'ticose.  Somewhat  shrubby,  shrubby 

at  the  base ;  an  under  shrub. 
Sul'cate.    Furrowed,  marked  with  deep 

lines. 

Super.    Above. 
Supradecom' pound.     More    than    decom- 
pound ;  many  times  subdivided. 
Superior.    A  calyx  or  corolla  is  superior 

when  it  proceeds  from  the  upper  part  ol 

the  germ. 

Supi'nus.  Face  upwards   See  resupinatus. 
Suture.    The  line  or  seam  formed  by  the 

junction  of  two  valves  of  a  seed  vessel. 
Syco'ne.    (From   sucon,  a  fig.)     A  name 

given  to  one  of  MirbePs  genera,  of  fruits. 
Sylvcs'tris.    Growing  in  woods. 
Syn'carpe.     (From  sun,  with,  and  karpos 

fruit.)     A  union  of  fruits. 
Syngene'sious.    Anthers  growing  together 

forming  a  tube  ;  such  plants  as  constitute 

the  class  Syngenesia,  being  also  coin- 
pound  flowers. 
Syn'oni/iiis.    Synonimous,  different  names 

for  the  same  plant. 
Synop'sis.    A  condensed  view  of  a  subject 

or  science. 

T. 

Tazon'omy.  (From  taxis,  order,  and  no- 
ttws,  law.)  Method  of  classification. 

Teeth  of  Mosses.  The  outer  fringe  of  the 
perifttomium  is  generally  in  4,  8,  16,  32 
or  64  divisions  ;  these  are  called  teeth. 

TV»TKX.    Covering; 

Tc  if 'it  in  rut.  The  skin  or  covering  of  seeds 
often  buists  off  on  boiling,  as  in  the  pea. 

Tern' per ature.  The  degree  of  heat  anc 
cold  to  which  any  place  is  subject,  no 
wholly  dependent  upon  latitude,  being 
atfected  by  elevation  ;  the  mountains  o 
the  torrid  zone  produce  the  plants  of  th 
frigid  zone.  In  cold  regions  white  an< 
blue  peials  are  more  common  ;  in  warn 
regions  red  and  other  vivid  colours  ;  in 
the  spring  we  have  more  white  pe- 


tals,  in  the  autumn  more  yellow  ones. 

Ten'dril.  A  filiform  or  thread  like  appen- 
dage of  some  climbing  plants,  by  which 
they  are  supported  by  twining  round 
other  objects. 

Tencl'lus.    Tender,  fragile. 

Tniuifo'lius.    Slender  leaved. 

Ten'uis.    Thin  and  slender. 

Ter'ete.    Round,  cylindrical,  tapering. 

Ter'minal.    Extreme,  situated  at  the  end. 

Ter'nate.  Three  together,  as  the  leaves  of 
the  clover. 

Tctradyn 'amous.  With  four  long  and 
two  short  stamens. 

Tf  tran' drous.    Having  four  stamens. 

Thorn.  A  sharp  process  from  the  woody 
part  of  the  plant ;  considered  as  an  im- 
perfect bud  indurated. 

Thread-form.    See  filiform. 

Thyrse.    See  panicle. 

Tige.    See  caulis. 

Tincto'rius.  Plants  containing  colouring 
matter. 

Tomen'tose.  Downy.;  covered  with  fine 
matted  pubescence. 

Tonic.  (From  tono,  to  strengthen.)  Me- 
dicines which  increase  the  tone  of  ihe 
muscular  fibre. 

Toothed.    See  dentate. 

Trachea}.  Names  given  to  vessels  suppos- 
ed to  be  designed  for  receiving  and  dis- 
tributing air. 

Transverse.     Crosswise.  , 

Trichot'omous.    Three  forked. 

Trifid.    Three  cleft. 

Trifo'liate.    Three  leaved,  v) 

Trilo'bate.    Three  lobed. 

Triloc'ular.    Three  celled. 

Trun'cate.  Having  a  square  termination, 
as  if  cut  off. 

Trunk.    The  stem  or  bole  of  a  tree. 

Tube.  The  lower  hollow  cylinder  of  a 
monopetalous  corolla. 

Tuber.    A  solid  fleshy  knob. 

Tuberous.  Thick  and  fleshy,  containing 
tubers,  as  the  potato. 

Tubular.    Shaped  like  a  tube,  hollow. 

Tu'nicate.  Coated  with  surrounding  lay- 
ers, as  in  the  onion. 

Tur'binate.    Shaped  like  a  top,  or  pear. 

Twining.    Ascending  spirally. 

Twisted.    Coiled. 


U. 


Uligino'sus.    Growing  in  damp  places. 
Umbel.    A  kind  of  inflorescence  in  which 

the  flower  stalks  diverge  from  one  centre, 

like  the  sticks  of  an  umbrella. 
Umbelliferous.    Bearing  umbels. 
Unarmed.    Without  thorns  or  prickles. 
Un'cinate.    Hooked. 
Unctuo'sus.    Greasy,  oily. 
Un'dulate.     Waving,    serpentine,  gently 

rising  and  falling. 
Unguis.    A  claw. 
Unffuic'ulate.    Inserted  by  a  claw. 
Uniflo'rus.    One  flowered. 
U'nicus.    Single. 

Unilat'eral.    Growing  on  one  side. 
Urce'olate.    Swelling  in  the  middle,  and 

contracted  at  the  top  in  the  form  of  a 

pitcher. 


430 


VOCABULARY. 


V.  I  Vires' cent.    Inclining  to  green. 

I  ir  irate.    Long  and  slender.    Wartlike. 
Valves.    The  parts  of  a  seed  vessel  into  yir'tdis.    Green. 


which  it  finally  separates ;  also  the  leaves 
which  make  up  a  glume,  or  spatha. 

Variety.  A  subdivision  of  a  species,  dis- 
tinguished by  characters  which  are  not 
permanent;  varieties  do  not  with  <->:r 
tainty  produce  their  kind  by  their  seed 
All  apjiks  are  but  varieties  of  one  spe- 
cies ;  if  the  seeds  of  a  sour  apple  be  plant- 
ed, they  will  produce,  perhaps,  soint 
sweet  apples,  some  of  a  green  colour 
some  red  :  there  are  as  many  trees  of 
different  kinds  of  fruit,  as  there  are  seeds 
planted.  The  quince  is  a  species  of  the 
same  genus,  or  family,  as  the  apple  ;  but 
the  seed  of  a  quince  has  never  been 
known  to  produce  an  apple  tree. 

Vaulted.  Arched  over ;  with  a  concave 
covering. 

Veined.  Having  the  divisions  of  the  petiole 
irrecularly  branched  on  the  under  side 
of  the  leaf. 

Vcn'tricose.    Swelled  out.    See  inflated. 

Vernal.    Appearing  in  the  spring. 

Vrr'rucose.  Warty,  covered  with  little 
protuberances. 

Vertical.    Perpendicular. 

Vertieil'latc.    \Vhorled,  having  leaves  or  Zool'ogy.    The  science  of  animals, 
flowers  in  a  circle  round  the  stem. 

Vesie'ular.   Made  up  of  cellular  substance. 

Ves'pertine.  Flowers  opening  in  the  eve- 
ning. 

Vil'laus.    Hairy,  the  hairs  long  and  soft. 

Viola' ceout.    Violet  coloured. 


Virgvl'tum.    A  small  twig. 

Virose.    Nauseous  to  the  smell,  poisonous. 

Viscid.    Thick,  glutinous,   covered    with 

inlhe-ive  inoiMiire. 
Vitel'lus.    Called  also  the  yolk  of  the  seed ; 

it  is  between  the  albume'n  and  embryo. 
Vit'reus.    Glassy. 
Vivip'arous.    Producing  others  by  mean* 

of  bulbs  or  seeds,  germinating  while  yet 

on  the  old  plant. 
Vul'nerary.      (From   vulnus,  a  wound.) 

Medicines  which  heal  wounds. 

\V. 

Wedge-form.  Shaped  like  a  wedge,  round- 
ed at  the  large  end,  obovate  with  straight- 
i-ii  sides. 

'•  aped.    See  rotate. 

Wings.  The  two  side  petals  of  a  papilio- 
naceous Sower. 

Wood.  The  most  solid  parts  of  trunks  of 
trees  and  shrubs. 


Zoophytes.  The  lowest  order  of  animals, 
sometimes  called  animal  plants,  though 
considered  as  wholly  belonging  to  it» 
animal  kingdom.  Many  of  them  n  -.  m- 
Me  plants  in  their  forni,"and  exhibit  very 
fuint  marks  of  sensation. 


LANGUAGE  OF  FLOWERS. 


Besides  the  scientific  relations  which  are  to  be  observed  in  plants,  flowers 
may  also  be  regarded  as  emblematical  of  the  affections  of  the  heart  and  quali- 
ties of  the  intellect.  In  all  ages  of  the  world,  history  and  fable  have  attached 
to  flowers  particular  associations ;  consecrating  them  to  melancholy  remem- 
brances, to  glory,  friendship  or  love.  In  oriental  countries,  a  selam,  or  boquet 
of  flowers,  is  often  made  the  interesting  medium  of  communicating  sentiments, 
to  which  words  are  inadequate. 

The  authorities  for  the  emblems  here  adopted,  are  "  Flora's  Dictionary," 
"Garland  of  Flora,"  " Les  Vegeteux  Curieux,"  and  "Emblems  Des  Fleurs." 
In  a  few  cases,  alterations  have  been  made,  in  order  to  introduce  sentiments  of 
a  more  refined  and  elevated  character,  than  such  as  relate  to  mere  personal 
attractions. 

Acacia.    Friendship. 

Acanthus.     Indissoluble  ties. 

Aconitum.    (Monk's  Jiood.)    Deceit.    Poisonous  words. 

Adonis  autumnalis.    Sorrowful  remembrances. 

Affrostemma.    (Cockle. )    Charms  please  the  eye,  but  merit  wins  the  soul. 

Althea.    I  would  not  act  contrary  to  reason. 

Aloe.  Religious  superstition.  Think  not  the  Almighty  wills  one  idle  pang, 
one  needless  tear. 

Amaranthus.    Immortality.    Unchangeable. 

A.    Melancholicus.    Love  lies  bleeding. 

Amaryllis.     Splendid  beauty.    Coquetry. 

Anemone.    Anticipation.    Frailty. 

Arum.    Deceit.    Ferocity.    Treachery. 

Apocynum.     Falsehood.  * 

Arbor  Vita.     (Thuja  occidentalism    Friendship  unchanging. 

Aster.     Beauty  in  retirement. 

Auricula.    Elegance.    Pride. 

Asdepias.  (Milk  weed.)  Cure  for  the  heart  ache.  The  miserable  have  no 
medicine  but  hope. 

Bachelor's  button.    Hope,  even  in  misery. 

Balm.    Sweets  of  social  intercourse. 

Broom.    Humility. 

Broom  corn.    Industry. 

Balsam.    (Impatiens.)    Impatience.     Do  not  approach  me. 

Bay.     (Lauras.)    I  change  but  with  death. 

Box.    Constancy. 

Calla  ethiopica.    (Egyptian  lily.)    Ffeminine  delicacy. 

Camellia  japonica.    (Japan  rose.)    Pity  is  easily  changed  to  love. 

Campanula.    (Bell  flower.)    Gratitude. 

Cape  jasmine.    (Gardenia  florida.)    My  heart  is  joyful. 

Cardinal  flower.  (Lobelia  cardinalis.)  High  station  does  not  secure  hap- 
piness. 

Catch  fly.    (Lychnis.)    I  am  a  willing  prisoner. 

Cedar.    (Jumperus.)    You  are  entitled  to  my  love. 

China-aster,  double.    ( Aster  chinensis.)    Your  sentiments  meet  with  a  teturn. 

China-aster,  single.    You  have  no  cause  for  discouragement. 

Chrysanthemum  red.    Love. 

Chrysanthemum  white.    Truth  needs  no  protestations. 

Chrysanthemum  yellow.    A  heart  left  to  desolation. 

Clematis.     (Virgin's  bower.)     Mental  excellence. 

Cock's  comb.    (Amaranthus.)    Foppery.     Affectation. 

Columbine,  purple.    (Aquilegia  canadensis.)    I  cannot  give  theo  up. 


432  LANGUAGE  OF  FLOWERS. 

Columbine,  red.    Hope  and  fear  alternately  prevail. 

Convolvulus.    Uncertainty. 

Cornus.    Indifference.    A  changed  heart. 

Cowslip.    (Primula.)    Native  grace. 

Crocus.    Cheerfulness 

Crown  Imperial.     (Fritillaria  imperialist    Majesty.    Power. 

Cypress.     Disappointed  hopes.     Despair. 

Chamomik.    Blooms  in  sorrow.    Enorgy  to  act  in  adversitv. 

Carnation.     (Dianthus.)     Disdain.     Pride. 

Citron.    Beautiful,  but  ill  humoured. 

Dahlia.     Forever  thine. 

Daisy.    (Belli*  perennis.)    Unconscious  beauty. 

Dandelion.    Smiling  on  all.    Coquetry. 

Eglantine.    (Rosa  rubwinosa.)    I  wound  to  heal. 

Elder.    (Rambucus.)    Compassion  yielding  to  love. 

Everlasting.    (Gnaphali-um.)    Never  ceasing  remembrance. 

Fox  glove.     (Digitalis.)    I  am  not  ambitious  for  myself,  but  for  you. 

Fuchsia.    (Ladies' ear  drop.)     It  were  all  one, 

That  I  should  love  a  bright  particular  star, 
And  think  to  wed  it. 

Geranium,  fi.vh.    Thou  art  changed. 

Geranium,  oak.    Give  me  one  look  to  cheer  my  absence. 

Geranium,  rose.    Many  are  lovely,  hut  you  exceed  all. 

Hawthorn.    (Cratcegus.)    Hope  !  I  thee  invoke  ! 

Heart1*  ease.    (Viola  tricolour.)    Forget  me  not. 

mMMM,    Beauty  is  vain. 

Hollu.    (Ilex.)    Think  upon  your  vows. 

Hollyhock.    (Althea  rosea.)    Ambition. 

Honeysuckle.     (Lonicera.)     I  strive  with  grief.     Fidelity. 

Hyacinth.    Love  is  full  of  jealousy. 

Hydrangea.    A  boaster.    Superior  merit,  when  assumed,  is  lost. 

Houstonta  cerulia.    Meek  and  quiot  happiness. 

Hirpericum.    (St.  John's  Wort.)    Animosity. 

Jasmine.    You  bear  a  gentle  mind.    Amiability. 

Jonquil.    (Narcissus.)     Affection  returned. 

Iwnuea.    Busy  body.    Busy  bodies  are  a  dangerous  sort  of  people. 

Iris.    I  have  a  message  for  you. 

Ivy.    (Vitis  hedera.)    Female  affection.    I  have  found  one  true  heart. 

Lfifiurnum.     (Cytirus laburnum.)     Pensive  beauty. 

Lady's  slipper.    (Cypripedium.)    Capricious  beauty. 

Larkspur.     (Delphinium.)    Inconstancy.    Inconstant  as  the  changing  wind 

Laurel.    (Kalmia.)    Oh  what  a  goodly  outside  falsehood  hath  ! 

Lavender.    Words  though  sweet  may  be  deceptive. 

Lemon.    (Citrus  lemonium.)     Discretion.    Prudence. 

Lilac.     (Syringa.)     First  love. 

Lily,  white.    (Lilium  candidum.)    Purity.    With  looks  too  pure  for  earth. 

Lily,  yellow.     False.     Light  as  air. 

Lily  of  the  valley.    (Convallaria.)     Delicacy.    The  heart  withering  in  Porrrf 

Locust,  the  green  leaves.    Affection  beyond  the  grave.    Sorrow  ends  not. 
when  it  seemeth  done  ! 

Lupine.    Indignation. 

Magnolia.    Perseverance. 

Marigold.    Cruelty.    Contempt. 

MtraKta.    (Four  o'clock.)    Timidity. 

Myrnomedk.    (Reseda  odorata.)    Moral  and  intellectual  beauty. 
JMOM.    (Sensitive  Plant.)    My  heart  is  a  broken  Into  ! 

Mock  Orange,  or  Syrinsm.    (Philadelphia.)    Counterfeit.    I  cwir.ot  believe 
one  who  has  once  deceived  me. 

Miirtle.     (M,/rtus.)     Love. 

Myrtle,  withered.    Love  betrayed. 

Narcissus.    Egotism.    The  selfish  heart  deserves  the  pain  it  feels. 

Nettle.    ( Urtica.)    Scandal. 

Nlphtshade.    Suspicion.    Artifice.    Scepticism. 

Nasturtion.    (Tropceolum.)    Honor  to  the  brave.    Wit 


LANGUAGE  OF  FLOWERS.  433 

Oleander.    Beware.    Shun  the  coming  evil.    In  vain  is  the  net  spread  in 
the  sight  of  any  bird. 

Olive.    Peace.    After  a  storm  comes  a  calm. 

Orange  flowers.     Bridal  festivity.  f 

Parsley.    (Apium.)    Useful  knowledge. 

Passionflower.     (Passiflora.)     Devotion. 

Peach  Blossom.    Here  I  fix  my  choice. 

Periwinkle.    (Vinca.)    Recollection  of  the  past. 

Phlox.     Our  souls  are  united. 

Pine.     (Pinus  resinosa.)    Time  and  philosophy. 

Pine.     Spruce.    Farewell !  for  I  must  leave  thee. 

Pink,  single  white.    (Dianthus.) '  Ingenuousness.    Stranger  to  art. 

Pink,  single  red.    A  token  of  all  the  heart  can  keep, 
Of  holy  love  in  its  fountain  deep. 

Pink,  China.    (Dianthus  Chinensis.)     Aversion.    Though  repulsed,  not  in 
despair. 

Pink,  variegated.    Refusal.    You  have  my  friendship ;  ask  not  for  more. 

Pcp.ony.     (Pceonia.)    Anger.     Ostentation. 

Polyanthus.    Thou  knowest  my  confidence  in  thee. 

Pomegranate  flower.    (Punica.)    Mature  and  beautiful. 

Poppy,  red.    Consolation.    Let,  the  darkness  of  the  past  be  forgotten,  in  the 
light  of  hope. 

Poppy,  white.    Doom'd  to  heal — or  doom'd  to  kill, 

Fraught  with  good  or  fraught  with  ill. 

Poppy,  variegated.    Beauty  without  loveliness. 

Primrose.    (Primula.)    Be  mine  the  delight  of  bringing  modest  worth  from 
obscurity. 

Primrose,  evening.    (O3nothera.)   Inconstancy.    Be  not  beguiled  with  smooth 
words.     Man's  love  is  like  the  changing  moon. 

Ranunculus.    Flowers  are  beautiful,  but  do  not,  like  mental  beauty,  delight 
the  heart. 

Rosemary.    Keep  this  for  my  sake.    I'll  remember  thee. 

Rue.    (Ruta.)    Disdain.    This  trifling  may  be  mirth  to  you,  but  'tis  death 
to  me. 

Rose  bud.    Confession.    Thou  hast  stolen  my  affections. 

Rose,  Burgundy.    Modesty  and  innocence  united  to  beauty. 

Rose,  damask.  '  Sweeter  than  the  op'ning  rose. 

Rose,  red.    The  blush  of  modesty  is  lovely. 

Rose,  moss.    Superior  merit. 

Rose,  while.    "  I  would  be, 

In  maiden  meditation,  fancy  free." 

Rose  white,  withered.    Emblem  of  my  heart.    Withered  like  your  love. 

Rose,  wild.    Simplicity.    Let  not  your  unsophisticated  heart  be  corrupted 
by  intercourse  with  the  world. 

Rose,  cinnamon.    Without  pretension.    Such  as  I  am,  receive  me.    Would 
I  were  of  more  worth,  for  your  sake. 

Sage     (Salvia.)    Domestic  virtues.    Woman's  province  is  home. 

Scarlet  Lychnis.    (Lychnis  chalcedonica.)    I  see  my  danger  without  power 
to  shun. 

Snapdragon.    (Antirrhinum.')    I  have  been  flattered  with  false  hopes. 

Snowball.     (Viburnum.)    Virtues  cluster  around  thee.    A  union. 

Snow  drop.    (Galanihus.)    Though  chilled  with  adversity,  I  will  be  true  to 
thee.    I  am  not  a  summer  friend. 

Sorrel.    (Rumex.)    Wit  ill  timed.    He  makes  a  foe  who  makes  a  jest. 

Speedwell.     (Veronica.)    True  love's  a  holy  flame, 

Aiid  when  'tis  kindled,  ne'er  can  die. 

Spider  wort.     (Tradescantia.)    The  pledge  of  friendship,  'tis  all  my  heart 
can  give.     Would'st  thou  then  counsel  me  to  fall  in  love  ? 

Star  of  Bethlehem.    (Ornithogalum.)    Reconciliation.    Light  is  brightest 
when  it  shineth  in  darkness. 

Solidago.    (Golden  rod.)    Encouragement. 

Strawberry.    (Fragaria.)    A  pledge  of  future  happiness. 

Sumach.    (Rhus.)    Splendor.    Wealth  cannot  purchase  love.    Have  you 
never  seen  splendid  misery  ? 

37 


434  LANGUAGE  OF  FLOWERS. 

Sunflower.    (HeUanthus.")    You  are  too  aspiring. 

Sweet  William.  (Dianthus  barbatus.)  Finesse.  One  may  smile  and  be  a 
villain.  I  cannot  smile  when  discontent  sits  heavy  at  my  heart. 

Sweet  pea.    Departure.    Must  you  go  ? 

Stock  gitty-flower.    You  are  too  lavish  of  your  smiles. 

Thistle.  (Carduus.)  Misanthropy.  O  that  the  desert  were  my  dwelling 
place  ! 

Thorn  apple.  (Stramonium.)  Alas,  that  falsehood  should  appear  in  such  a 
lovely  form  ! 

Thyme.    Less  lovely  than  some,  but  more  estimable. 

Tuberose.    (Polyanthus  Tuberosa.)    Blessings  brighten  as  they  take  their 


flight! 
Tulip. 


Vanity.    Thou  hast  metamorphosed  me  !    This  love  has  been  like 
a  blight  upon  my  opening  prospects. 

Tulip  tree.    (Liriodendrum.)    Rural  life  favourable  to  health  and  virtue. 

Verbena.    Sensibility.    The  heart  that  is  soonest  awake  to  the  flowers, 
Is  always  the  first  to  be  touch'd  by  the  thorns. 

Violet,  blue.    Faithfulness.    I  shall  never  forget. 

Violet,  white.    Modest  virtue. 

Wall  flower.    (Cheiranthus.)    Misfortune  is  a  blessing,  when  it  proves  the 
truth  of  friendship. 

Weeping  Willow.    (Salix.)    Forsaken.    Ask  not  one  to  join  in  mirth  whose 
heart  is  desolate. 

Wood  Sorrel.    (Oxalis.)    Tenderness  and  affection. 

Woodbine.    (Lonicera.)    Fraternal  love. 

Water  Lily.    The  American  lotus.    (Nymphaea.)    An  emblem  of  silence. 

Yarrow.    (AchUlea.)    To  heal  a  wounded  heart. 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 


Acotyledonous  plants,  38,  39, 129, 169, 

177,  267. 
Adansion,  320. 
Adansonia,  248. 
Agamous  plants,  167. 
Agaricus,  274. 

Age,  its  effects  on  plants,  300. 
Aggregate  flowers,  207. 
Aigrette,  or  Egret,  130. 
Air,  291. 
Albumen,  128. 
Aloes,  223. 
Amaranthi,  181. 
Amaranthus,  263. 
Araent,  or  Catkin,  91, 262. 
Amentaceee,  193. 
American  laurel,  232. 
Amygdalus,  236 
Analysis  of  the  pink,  22. 
"      of  the  lily,  19. 
"       of  the  rose,  25. 
"      of  the  poppy,  26. 
"      of  the  daisy,  185. 
"      of  one  of  the  grasses,  205. 
Anemone,  241. 
Annual  roots,  51. 
Anther,  20,  103. 
Apocynum,  260. 
Aquatic  plants,  57. 
Arabs,  308. 
Aristolochise,  180. 
Aristotle,  304. 
Aroides,  178. 
Arrow  head,  265, 284. 
Arrow  root,  190. 
Artemisia,  253. 
Artificial  classes,  21, 29, 34, 167, 195. 

orders,  32,  195. 

Artificial  system,  194,  317, 158. 
Asparagi,  179. 
Asplenium,  268. 
Aster,  254. 

B. 

Barberry,  222. 
Bauhin,  314. 
Bark,  147. 
Bicornes,  231. 
Biennial  roots,  51. 
Blackberry,  237. 
Blessed  thistle,  255. 
Blood  root,  281. 
Blue  eyed  grass,  245. 


Botanical  names,  directions  for  pro- 
nouncing them,  41. 

"         their  use,  194. 
Botanical  gardens,  311. 
Botany,  objects  ofwhich  it  treats,  19. 

"       its  departments,  19,  20. 
Bread  fruit  tree,  262. 
Bract,  88. 
Brake,  269. 
Branching  roots,  52. 
Buckwheat,  227. 
Buds,  44,  54. 
Bulb-bearing  stem,  63. 
Bulbous  root,  55. 

C. 

Cactus,  235. 
Calla,264,282. 
Calycandria,  235. 
Calyptra,  92. 
Calyx,  88. 
Cambium,  146. 
Camellia  japonica,  247. 
Campanulaceas,  183. 
Camphor,  228. 
Capsulares,  116. 
Capsule,  116,  124. 
Carcerulares,  116. 
Carex,262. 
Cassia,  230. 
Catalpa,  200. 
Cat  tail,  262. 
Caulis,  59. 
Cellular  tissue,  87,  141. 

"       integument,  148. 
Characters  used  in  classification,  172. 
Charter  oak,  301. 

Chemical  composition  .of  plants,  156. 
Chick  weed,  261. 
Chrysanthemum,  254. 
Cinnamon,  228. 
Citrus,  240. 
Classes  of  Linnaeus,  29. 

"    of  Jussieu,  39. 

"    of  Tournefort,  164. 
Classification  of  Ray,  315. 

of  Rivinus,  315. 
Clover,  282. 
Clusius,  313. 
Cochineal,  299. 
Cockle,  233. 
Cossalpinus,  314. 
Columbine,  282. 


436 


INDEX. 


Coffee,  2 13.  G 

Columniferae,  247.  Galen,  307. 

Companulacea?,  183.  Gentian,  216. 

Comparison  of  different  botanical  me-  Germ,  104. 

thods,  170.  Germination  of  the  seed,  134. 

Comparison  of  natural  and  artificial  Gesner,  313. 


classes,  172. 
Compound  flowers,  183. 252. 
Coniferse,  193. 
Corals,  233. 
Corolla,  20,  93. 
Cortex,  149. 
Corydalis,  249. 
Cotyledon,  128. 
Cowslip,  215,280. 
Cranberry,  225. 
Creeping  root,  54. 
Crocus,  200. 
<  'rovvn  Imperial,  100. 
Cruciform  plants,  188. 
( 'ryptogamous  plants,  44,  177, 
Cucumber,  265. 
Culm,  59. 
Cuticle,  81. 
Cynips,299. 

D. 


Ginger,  1%. 
Girdling  trees,  149. 
Glands,  86. 

Glandular  system,  142. 
Glume,  92. 
Golden  rod,  254. 
Grafting,  236. 
Gramina,  178,  202. 
Granulated  root,  54. 
Grapes,  213. 
Grasses,  178,202,301. 
Growth  of  plants,  152. 

H. 

Habits  of  plants,  289. 
Habitations  of  plants,  292 
Hare  bell,  222. 
Haw  thorn,  236. 
Heat,  291,  338,138. 
Heath,  a»T^ 
Heavenly  bodies,  15,  326. 


Daisy,  185. 

Departments  in  Botany,  19.  Herbarium,  manner  of  labelline  for  24 

Dicotyledonous  plants,  38, 39, 150, 153,  "    " 

Regeneration  of  organs,  297. 
Dioscorides,  306. 
Diseases  of  plants,  298. 
Drupe,  119,  125. 


manner  of  preparing,  45. 
Herbs,  44,  292,  315. 
Hippocrates,  304. 
Hippuris,  196. 
ollvh 


Elephant's  foot,  255. 
Enchanter's  night  shade,  199. 
Endocarp,  114. 
Endogenous  stem,  64,  153. 
Ensata;,221. 
Epicarp,  128. 
Evergreens,  285. 
Exogenous  stem,  "64,  153. 

F. 

Fall  of  the  leaf,  84. 

Ferns,  177,  267. 

I- is,  122,266. 

Filament,  20,  102. 

Flax,  218. 

Fluid  parts  of  vegetables,  143. 

Flowers  proper  for  analysis,  46. 

Follicle,  118,  125. 

Forest  trees,  265. 

Frondescence,  82. 

Fructification,  organs  of,  21,  50,  88. 

Fruit,  1 13. 

"    Mirbel's  classification  of,  115. 

"    Linnaeus'  classification  of,  124. 
Fucus  natans,  57, 272. 
Fungi,  178,  274. 
Furze,  250. 


Hollyhock,  247. 

Honey,  99. 

Houstonia,  206. 

Horse  chesnut,  223,  290. 

Humboldt's  division  of  climates,  2% 

Hydrangea,  233. 

Impressions  of  leaves,  46. 

Indian  corn,  263,  265,  291. 

Indians,  their  knowledge  of  Botany,  15. 

Inflorescence,  108. 

Inorganized  bodies,  305,  327,  337,  338. 

Involucrum,  91. 

Irritability  of  leaves,  83. 

Irides,  180. 

Jasmine,  198. 

Jussieu,  319. 

Jussieu's  division  of  compound  flowers, 

Jussieu's  general  divisions,  38. 
"       method,  168. 

L. 

Labiate  corollas,  96,  181,  242. 
Lacebark  tree,  226. 
Ladies'  eardrop,  226. 
Ladies'  slipper,  258. 
Laurel,  227. 
Lauri,  180. 
Leaves,  44,  69. 

"      anatomy  of,  80. 
Legume,  116,  124,  190,  249. 


INDEX. 


437 


Leguminous  plants,  302. 

Liber,  149. 

Lichens,  273. 

Lilac,  197. 

Liliaceous  plants,  179,  220. 

Lily,  19,24,220. 

Lily  of  the  valley,  222. 

Lima  bean,  250. 

J  jnnaea  borealis,  284. 

Linnaeus,  318. 

Linnaeus,  system  of,  19,  29,  166,  194, 

290. 

Litmus,  274. 
Liverworts,  271. 
Lupine,  250. 
Luridae,210. 
Lizard's  tail,  224. 

M. 

Magnolia,  241. 
Mandrake,  53,  211,238. 
Marigold,  255,  286. 
Matter,  sciences  which  relate  to,  18. . 
Mesocarp,  114. 
Microscope,  316. 
Milk  weed,  258. 
Mind,  its  faculties,  13. 

"      science  which  relates  to  it,  18. 
Misletoe,  266. 
Monocotyledonous  plants,    129,    137, 

Monsters,  46. 
Mosses,  177, 269. 
Mountains,  295. 
Mullein,  212. 
Multisiliquae,  241. 
Mushroom,  177,  274. 

N. 

Narcissi,  180. 

Nasturtion,  226,  291. 

Natural  families  of  Linnaeus,  36. 

"      ofJussieu.39,168,  319. 
Natural  History,  18. 

"       Science,  46,  323. 
Nature,  326. 
Nectary,  99. 

Numerals,  Latin  and  Greek,  29. 
Nyctanthes,  199. 

O. 

Odour  of  flowers,  98. 
Oil,  302,  158. 
Olive,  199. 
Opium,  240. 
Orchis,  180,  257,  261. 
Ovary,  114. 
Ovule,  114. 

P. 

Palms,  178,  154. 

Papilionaceous  corolla,  97,  190,  248. 
Parasites,  57,  300. 
Parenchyma,  81. 
Paris,  226. 

Passion  flower,  245,  286. 
Peduncle,  60. 


Peony,  241. 
Perennial  roots,  52. 
Perianth,  90. 
Pericarp,  113. 

"        parts  of,  114. 

"        Mirbel's  classification,  115. 

"        Linnaeus'  124. 

Perspiration  of  plants,  145. 
Petiole,  60. 

Phsenogamous  plants,  44. 
Philosophers  of  Greece,  304. 
Physiological  Botany,  19, 133,  139. 
Pink,  22,  233. 
Pistil,  20, 103. 
Pith,  151. 
Plantain,  206. 

Plants,  method  of  preserving,  45. 
"      when  first  spoken  of,  303. 
Pliny,  306. 
Poke  weed,  233. 
Pollen,  105. 
Polydelphia,  32,  251. 
Polygamia,  32. 
Pelygonoeae,  180. 
Pomace®,  236. 
Pomegranate,  236. 
Poppy,  239. 
Pond  lily,  239,  284. 
Potatoe,  54,  210. 
Premose  root,  53. 
Prickles,  85. 
Proper  juices,  147. 
Proteae,  180. 

Proximate  principles,  157. 
Pubescence,  87. 
Primus,  236. 
Pythagorus,  304. 

R. 

Radicles,  52,  130. 
Red  bud,  230. 
Receptacle,  113,  115. 
Rhubarb,  228. 
Rice,  223, 291. 
Roots,  44,  51. 
Rosaceas,  189. 
Rose,  25,  236. 
Rough  leaved  plants,  209. 
Rubiacere,  187. 

Sage,  198. 

Salts,  291. 

Salicornia,  196, 

Sap,  143. 

Sassafras,  227. 

Scales,  86. 

Scape,  60. 

Scouring  rushes,  289. 

Sea  weeds,  272. 

Seed, 126. 

Seneca  snake  root,  260. 

Sensitive  fern,  269. 

Septas,  234. 

Side  saddle  flower,  238, 

Silk  cotton  tree,  248, 


438 


COMMON  NAMES  OF  PLANTS. 


Silique,  117,  124. 

Sir  J.  E.  Smith,  318. 

Shad  blossoms,  281. 

Snow  ball,  218. 

Solid  parts  of  vegetables,  140. 

Solomon's  seal,  222. 

Sjrr.fl,  223,  233. 

Spatha,  91. 

Species,  167. 

Spindle  root,  53. 

Siiuncri,  20,  101. 

Stem,  44,  58. 

Stigma,  104. 

Stings,  86. 

Stipules,  85. 

Sinr.vberry,  237. 

Sunflower",  181,  255. 

Symmetry  of  Structure  in  plants,  199. 

Syngenosious  plants,  183,  252. 

Synopsis  of  classes  and  order  of  Lin- 

iiii-ns,  34. 
Synopsis  of  organs  of  plants,  50. 

of  classes  of  Jussieu,  169. 
"       of  the   method  of  Tounie- 

fort,  165. 
Systematic  Botany,  its  divisions,  19. 


Tendrils,  87. 
Theophrastus,  305. 
Thorns,  85. 

Tournefort's  method,  164. 
Trumpet  flower,  243. 
Tulip,  221. 
Turmeric,  1%. 

U. 

Valerian,  197. 
Vascular  system,  81,  141. 
Vernal  flowers,  280. 
Venus'  fly  trap,  232. 
Veronica,  199. 
Violet,  215,  255. 
Virgin's  bower,  241. 
Virginia  snake  root,  260. 

W. 

Water,  291. 
Whortleberry,  231. 
Wild  ginger.  260.    . 
Wild  pea,  230. 
Wild  turnip,  265,  228. 
Willow,  266,280. 
Winter  green,  231. 
Wood,  150. 

X. 
Xylosteum,  281. 


COMMON  NAMES  OF  PLANTS. 


Aracia,  361. 

Birth  wort,  365. 

Carrot,  349. 

Aililrr  tongue,  351. 

Black  berry,  356. 

Cassia,  353. 

Agrimony,  350. 

Black  snake  root,  357. 

Castor  nil  plant,  367. 

Albany  beach  dropa,  354. 

Black  walnut,  367. 

Catalpa  tree,  343. 

Alder,  366. 

Bladder  nut,  350. 

Catmint,  358. 

Alismu.  352. 

Bladder  senna,  362. 

Cat-tail,  365. 

Apple,  356. 

Blessed  thistle,  364. 

Celandine,  356. 

Apricot,  355. 

Klite,  343. 

Celery,  349. 

Amaranth,  366. 

Blood  root,  356. 

Cenomyce,  370. 

American  cowslip,  357. 

Blue  curls,  359. 

Cerastium,  355. 

American  water  cress,  360. 

Blue  bottle,  364. 

Cetraria,  370. 

Angelica,  349. 

Blue  eyed  grass,  361. 

Changeable  hydrangea,  355. 

Arethusa,  365. 

Blue  gentian,  358, 

Cherry,  355. 

Arrowhead.  366. 

Blue  hearts,  359. 

Chestnut,  367. 

Asparagus,  351. 

Boletus,  371. 

Chick-  weed,  355. 

Asphodel,  351. 

Boneset,  363. 

Chick-winter-green,  352. 

Aiainask  lily,  350. 

Borage,  346. 

Choak-berry,  356. 

A  vend,  356. 

Brake,  368. 

Cinque-foil^  3.~>r,. 

Bachelor's  button,  348. 

Broom  corn,  345. 

Cives,  351. 

Bwifwes,  370. 

Buck  wheat,  353. 

Clover,  362. 

Balm,  35i). 

Bugloss,  347. 

Cock  foot  gram,  345. 

Malm  nf  (Jili-ad,  368. 

Bulrush,  351. 

Cock's  comb,  366. 

Balsam  apple,  367. 

Burdock,  363. 

Cockle,  355. 

Barberry,  350. 

Burnet,  366. 

Cohosh,  357. 

Barlev,  345. 

Bush  clover,  362. 

Colic  weed,  361. 

Bass-wood,  356. 

Bush  honey  suckle,  348. 

Colt's  foot,  364. 

Beech,  366. 

Bush  locust,  362. 

Columbine,  357. 

Beech  drops,  359. 

Button  bush,  345. 

Comb  tooth  thistle,  363. 

Bean,  36-J. 

Butternut,  367. 

Cuinlrry,  347. 

Bear  berry,  354. 

Button  wood,  367. 

Cone  flower,  364. 

Bedstraw,  346. 

Cal.lmjre,  361. 

Coriander,  349. 

Beet,  341). 

Campion,  355. 

Coronilla,  362. 

Bell  flower,  347. 

Cancer  root,  359. 

Cotton,  301. 

Bull  wort,  351. 

Caper,  366. 

Cow  wheat,  359. 

Bind  weed,  347. 

Caraway,  349. 

Cranberry,  .'{">-' 

Birch,  3r,7.                      ^ 

Cardinal  flower,  347. 

Crane  bill,  36  1. 

-.!.  331. 

Carpet  weed,  345. 

Crow  foot,  358. 

COMMON  NAMES  OF  PLANTS. 


439 


Crown  imperial,  351.      , 

Hawk  weed,  363. 

Mullein,  347. 

Cucumber,  367. 

Hazlenut,  366. 

Musk  melon,  367. 

Culver's  physic,  343. 

Heal  all,  359. 

Mustard,  360. 

Currant,  348. 

Heath,  352. 

Myrtle,  355. 

Cut  grass,  344. 
Cypress  vine,  347. 

Hedge  hysop,  343. 
Hellebore,  357. 

Nasturtion,  353. 
Necklace  weed,  356. 

Daffodil,  351. 

Herb-robert,  361. 

Nettle,  366. 

Dandelion,  363. 

Hickory,  367. 

New  Jersey  tea,  348. 

Darnel  grass,  345. 

iiogweed,  366. 

Night  shade,  347. 

Day  flower,  344. 

Holly,  346. 

Nostoc,  370. 

Day  lily,  351. 

Holly  hock,  361. 

Oak,  366. 

Dill,  349. 

Honesty,  360. 

Oak  of  Jerusalem,  349. 

Dock,  352. 

Hop,  368. 

Oats,  345. 

Dodder,  349. 

Horehound,  358. 

Onion,  350. 

Dodbane,  365. 

Horse  balm,  344. 

Orange,  357. 

Dogtooth  violet,  351. 

Horse  chesnut,  352. 

Orchard  grass,  345. 

Dog  wood,  346. 

Hound  tongue,  346. 

Orobanche,  359. 

Dry  strawberry,  356. 

House  leek,  358. 

Painted  cup,  359. 

Ear  drop,  352. 

Hyacinth,  351. 

Palma  christi,  367. 

European  ivy,  348. 
Elecampane,  364. 

Hydrangea,  354. 
Ice  plant,  356. 

Parmelia,  370. 
Parnassus  grass,  350. 

Elephant  foot,  364. 

Indian  corn,  366. 

Parsley,  349. 

Elm,  349. 

Indigo,  362. 

Parsnip,  349. 

Enchanter's    night    shade, 

Indian  mallows,  361. 

Partridge  berry,  346. 

344. 

Indian  turnip,  366. 

Passion  flower,  361. 

English  water  cress,  360. 

Jacobea  lily,  350. 

Pea,  362. 

Erigeron,  363. 

Jasmine,  343. 

Peach,  355. 

Euchroma,  359. 

Jonquil,  351. 

Pear,  356. 

Evening  primrose,  352. 

Judas  tree,  353. 

Pennyroyal,  358. 

Eye-bright,  359. 

Jungermannia,  369. 

Pennywort,  359. 

False  crow  foot,  361. 

King's  spear,  351. 

Peony,  357. 

False  fox  glove,  359. 

Knot  grass,  353. 

Pepper  grass,  360. 

False  indigo,  362. 

Ladies'  slipper,  368. 

Pepper  mint,  358. 

False  mustard,  350. 

Larkspur,  357. 

Pheasant's  eye,  358. 

False  saffron,  363. 

Laurel,  354. 

Pickerel  weed,  351. 

False  sun  flower,  364. 

Lavender,  358. 

Pig  weed,  349. 

False  syrinea,  355. 

Leather  leaf,  354. 

Pine,  367. 

Fan  palm,  352. 

Leek,  350. 

Pink,  354. 

Fennel,  349. 

Lemon,  357. 

Pipsissiwa,  353. 

Field  sorrel,  352. 

Lettuce,  363. 

Plantain,  346. 

Fig  tree,  367. 

Lichnidia,  347. 

Plum,  355. 

Five  finger,  356. 

Life  everlasting,  363. 

Polytrichum,  369. 

Flag,  344. 

Lilac,  343. 

Polypod,  368. 

Flax,  350. 

Lily,  351. 

Poison  hemlock,  349. 

Flower  de  luce,  344. 

Live  for  ever,  355. 

Poison  ivy,  350. 

Flowering  fern,  369. 
Fly  honey  suckle,  348. 

Liver  leaf,  358. 
Lizard  tail,  352. 

Poke  weed,  355. 
Pomegranate,  355. 

Fool's  parsley,  350. 

Loose  strife,  347. 

Pond  lily,  357. 

Fox  glove,  360. 

Louse  wort,  360. 

Poplar,  368. 

Four  o'clock,  348. 

Madder,  346. 

Poppy,  357. 

Fucus,  369. 

Magnolia,  358. 

Potatoe,  347. 

Fumitory,  362. 

Maiden  hair,  368. 

Pot  marigold,  364. 

Funaria,  369. 

Mallows,  361. 

Prickly  ash,  368. 

Garden  artichoke,  363 

Maple,  352. 

Prickly  pear,  355. 

Garden  daisy,  364. 

Marchantia,  369. 

Prim,  343. 

Garlic,  350. 

Mare's  tail,  343. 

Primrose  cowslip,  347. 

Gentian,  348. 

Marigold,  364. 

Princes'  pine,  353. 

Gill-over  ground,  358. 

Marjoram,  359. 

Pumpkin,  367. 

Ginseng,  349. 

Marsh  mallows,  361. 

Purslane.  356. 

Goat's  beard,  363. 
Golden  rod,  364. 

Matrimony,  346. 
May  weed,  364. 

Quake  grass,  345. 
Quince,  356. 

Golden  saxifrage,  353. 

Meadow  rue,  357. 

Radish,  361. 

Gold  thread,  357. 

Menispermum,  368. 

Raspberry,  356. 

Gooseberry,  348. 

Mezereon,  353. 

Rattle  box,  363. 

Gourd,  367. 

Mitella,  354. 

Rattlesnake  leaf,  365. 

Grape  vine,  348. 

Misletoe,  368. 

Red  cock's  comb,  366. 

Grass  pink,  365. 
Ground  ivy,  358. 

Mock  orange,  355. 
Monkey  flower,  360. 

Red  pepper,  347. 
Red  top,  344. 

Ground  nut,  362. 

Monk's  hood,  357. 

Reed,  344. 

Ground  pine,  369. 

Mother-wort,  358. 

Reed  mace,  365. 

Gyrophora,  370. 

Mountain  mint,  358. 

Rhubarb,  353. 

Habenaria,  365. 

Mouse  ear,  355. 

Ribbon  grass,  345. 

Halymenia,  369. 

Mucor,  370. 

Rice,  352. 

Hard  back,  356. 

Mulberry,  366. 

Rose,  356. 

440 


COMMON  NAMES  OF  PLANTS. 


Rose  bay,  354. 

Squills,  351. 

Ulva,  369. 

Rosemary,  344. 

St.  John's  worts,  357. 

Usnea,  370. 

Hue,  353. 

Staff  tree,  348. 

T  redo,  370. 

Rush  urass,  351. 
Rye,  31.".. 

Star  grass,  351. 
Star  flower,  364. 

•etable  oyster,  363. 
Venus'  fly  trap.  354. 

Saffron,  344. 

Star  of  Bethlehem,  3.11. 

Venus'  pride,  346. 

Sane,  314. 

Stock  July  flower,  360. 

Ver.itrnm,  352. 

Samphire,  343. 

Stone  crop,  355. 

Vetch,  362. 

is,  353. 

Stork  geranium,  361. 

Violet,  348. 

Satin  tiower,  360. 
Savon-,  358. 

Stork's  bill,  361. 
Strawberry,  356. 

Virginian  orpine,  355. 
Virgin's  bower,  357. 

Saxifrage.  :di. 

Succory,  362. 

Wake  robin,  366. 

Bcabish,  352. 

Sugar  cane,  344. 

Wall  cress,  360. 

Scarlet  pimpernel!,  347. 

Sumach,  350. 

Wall  flower,  360. 

Scorpion  crass,  346. 

Sundew,  350. 

Walnut,  367. 

Scrophularia,  359. 

Sun  ray,  364. 

Water  arum,  366. 

Scull  cap,  359. 

Sweet  cicily,  349. 

Water  hemlock,  349. 

Sensitive  polypod,  368. 
Shad  flower,  356. 

Sweet  flag,"351. 
Sweet  pea,  362. 

Water  horehound,  345. 
Water  melon,  367. 

Sheep  berry,  350. 
ShHl  flower,  358. 

Sweet  pepper  bush,  353. 
Sweet  vernal  grass,  344. 

Water  radish,  360. 
Wax  bush,  355. 

Shepherd's  puree,  360. 

Sweet  William,  354. 

Wheat,  345. 

Shin  leaf,  3.Vt. 

Tansey,  363. 

White  cedar,  367. 

Side-saddle  flower,  357. 

Tassel,  346. 

White  bush,  354. 

Silk  weed,  365. 

Tea,  357. 

White  lettuce,  3f,3. 

Skunk  cabbage,  346. 

Thistle,  363. 

Whortleberry,  354. 

Sleek  leaf,  3.13. 

Thorn  apple,  347. 

Wild  cucumber,  367. 

Smilax,  3iH. 

Thorn  bush,  356. 

Wild  bean. 

Snake  head,  360. 

Thorough  wort,  363. 

Wild  bean  vine,  363. 

Snake  mouth,  365. 

Thyme,  359. 

Wild  germander,  358. 

Snake  root,  362. 

Timothy  grass,  345. 

Wild  ginger,  365. 

Snap  dragon,  359. 

Tobacco,  347. 

Wild  honev  suckle,  347. 

Snow  ball,  350. 

Touch-me-not,  34K 

Wild  indigo,  353. 

Snow  drop,  351. 
Soap  wort,  354. 
Solomon's  seal,  351. 

Trailing  arbutus,  354. 
Trickle  root,  360. 
Trumpet  flower,  359. 

Wild  mandrake,  356. 
Wild  sarsaparilla,  350. 
Willow,  3ti7. 

S{H.-«'il\Vell,  343. 

Trumpet  honey  suckle,  34 

8.  Witch  hazel,  346. 

Spear  t;ra--,  313. 
Spear  mint,  358. 

Tuberose,  351. 
Tulip,  351. 

Wood  sorrel,  355. 
Worm  wood,  3i'.3. 

Spice  leaf  bush,  353. 

Tulip  tree,  358, 

Wound-wort,  358. 

Spicy  winter  green,  354. 

Turnip,  mil. 

Yarrow,  364. 

Spider  grass,  350. 

Turusol,  347. 

Yellow  eyed  graw,  344. 

Spider  wort,  350. 
Sprinc  beauty,  348. 

Twin  be-ry,  348. 
Twin  flower,  346. 

Yellow  pond  lily,  357. 
Yellow  root,  350. 

Squash,  367. 

ERRATA. 

Page  86,  4th  line  from  bottom,  for  calyxes  read  tcalet. 
11    193,  Fig.  101  is  placed  in'  an  inverted  position. 
K   213,  16th  line  from  top,  for  honicera  read  lonic*ra. 


CASS 


